Khalifa Ali

IntroductionAli was born to Abu Talib himself a renowned Quraish chief and custodian of the Holy Kaaba. Abu Talib’s father, Abdul Muttalib was the son of the great Hashim. Ali’s mother was Fatima, daughter of Asad who too was a son of Hashim. Fatima was a cousin of Abu Talib. Thus both of Ali’s parents were Hashemite, which was considered quite prestigious.Ancestry of AliThe Holy Prophet Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him) was Abdul Muttalib’s grandson. His father Abdullah was Abu Talib’s brother, which therefore made Abu Talib the prophet’s uncle and Ali his first cousin.Birth of AliAlthough his exact date of birth is not confirmed tradition says, Ali was born on the thirteenth of â€Å"Rajab† in the 28th year of the Elephant Era (whose commencement is marked by Yemen’s ruler Abraha’s failed attempt to invade Makkah and destroy the Kaaba) The Holy Prophet of Islam was born in the Year of the Elephant which according to scholars corresponds to the year 571 A.D. If we calculate then, Ali must have been born around 599 or 600 C.E.His birth was quite an unusual one. That day, his mother Fatima visited the Kaaba for pilgrimage. It was during her pilgrimage that she felt maternal pains and retired to a corner of the Kaaba and that is where Ali was born. Thus, Ali had the unparalleled honor of being born in the House of Allah bestowed upon him.The NameLegend goes that when Ali was born the Holy prophet and his wife Khadija came to see the infant. That the little boy had not yet opened his eyes was a matter of great worry for everyone. But when the prophet Muhammad held him in his hands young Ali opened his eyes, making the prophet the first person he saw after birth. The Holy Prophet named him ‘Ali’ the derivative of Allah, since he was born the Ka’aba.Physical AppearanceAli was of a moderate height. He held a gracious face which reflected his personality. His facial features were striking wi th a straight nose and a beautifully formed mouth. He possessed commanding eyes, full of light and luster.   It was as if rays of spirituality   beamed through him , and there was a certain sense of personal magnetism that attracted people towards him. As a young man, Ali was handsome, while in his later age, he became bulky with his gray hair of the head giving way to baldness. His beard, which was often dyed red, remained thick and luxuriant.Marriage of AliInitially when the Holy Prophet migrated to Yathrib he went alone but later Yathrib was named ‘Medina’ in his honor and he called his family and other Muslims there as well. At that time the prophet’s beloved wife Khadija had expired and he had married a woman called Sauda. A year later, he married Abu Bakr’s ( Islam’s first Caliph’s)daughter Ayesha. The Holy Prophet’s youngest daughter Fatima was also old enough to be married by that time. Abu Bakr and Omar both asked for her hand in marriage but there was no answer on the part of the Holy Prophet Muhammad.In those simpler times, age differences were not a concern in marriage. Khadija had been fifteen years older to Muhammad and he himself was much older to Ayesha at the time of marriage. It is thus important to note that this was not the reason the Prophet Muhammad remained silent to these proposals but it is reasonable to conclude that he was waiting for God’s approval and guidance in making this decision. After the Battle of Badr, it was Ali’s turn to ask for Fatima’s hand in marriage and he did so. The Holy Prophet replied that he needed Fatima’s consent. When he consulted Fatima she remained silent, a   sign of approval. The prophet also received a revelation signifying Allah’s approval of the marriage. Both families also mutually agreed.The marriage of Ali and Fatima is said to be the perfect one. Indeed two pure and blessed souls unified and bonded together. Ha fsa, a daughter of Omar and later a wife of the Holy Prophet described Fatima as an exemplary woman, one who’s face shone like the moon and who married a man with a superior personality.Induction of Ali as a member of the family of the Holy ProphetWhen Ali visited the Holy Prophet from the desert where he had been living, the occasion was also attended by a close few including Abu Talib and his family. The Holy Prophet loved Ali very much so much so that he requested Abu Talib to place Ali under his care. Abu Talib agreed to entrust Ali with the prophet because he knew he would care for him better than anyone else could.It is believed that the Holy Prophet did this to relieve Abu Talib’s increasing financial worries. However, this view seems to be untrue because Abu Talib was a Quraish chief and a trader. And had he been in any financial trouble the trouble he prophet would surely have helped him. Therefore it seems that it was because of the prophet’s fondness of Ali that he took him under his responsibility. Abu Talib would often visit and Ali would meet his parents everyday. The Holy Prophet kept Ali as a younger brother with much affection.Companionship of the Holy Prophet:The period of Ali's life which was spent with the Holy Prophet can be termed as the period of education and action. It was during these 32 years, from Ali's birth till the demise of the Holy Prophet, that Ali received his education under the loving care of the Last Prophet of Allah; embedded in himself the values of Islam; and acquired all the attributes that contribute to greatness. After the migration to Medina, he came to be known as a valiant soldier. His spoils in the battles of Badr, Uhud and the Ditch and his awe inspiring success at Khyber earned him the title of â€Å"Lion of God†.   He acted as the Governor of Yemen, and acquired good deal of experience as an administrator and judge, acquiring fame for his wise and well reasoned judgments.The First Three Caliphs and Ali:At the time of the demise of the Holy Prophet, Ali was a young enlightened, experienced, wise and valiant man. Despite all his qualities, Ali was passed over in the election for a caliph, as Abu Bakr took the state of affairs under his control. Ali would have to wait for 24 years before he could hold the office of caliph. During these years, Ali acted as an adviser to the caliphs in office. This was a period of inaction and contemplation, inaction on the political front as Ali kept aloof from politics and contemplation on the spiritual front as this period of Ali’s life was spent mostly in seeking spiritual perfection through prayer and remembrance of God.The Caliphate of Ali:Following Uthman's assassination, Ali took office as the next caliph of the Islamic empire. His term was a short one, marred by political upheaval, defections of close aides and civil war.   Ali was accused of involvement in the assassination of Uthman by Amer Muawiya, who mounte d an anti Ali campaign. The results were the Battles of the Camel, Siffin and Nahrawan. During the course of these battles, many of his closest aides betrayed him and defected. The list of betrayals is long and includes Ali's brother, cousins, mother in law and the whole cities of Medina and Basra. The Kharijites who had originally supported Ali also seceded and Ali was finally martyred by a Kharijite.Ali's concept of GodIn his various sermons, Ali has dwelt upon on the various attributes of God in a skillful way. Extracts from some of his sermons are as follows:   Ã¢â‚¬Å"All praise is due to the creator of the world whose wisdom is hidden. The various subjects of nature openly confirm his existence. He is not surpassed in strength and superiority. He is the nearest to us. No one can be nearer to us than He.His distance height has not segregated Him from His creation, and His nearness has not established His equality with His creation. He is that sublime and matchless Being in com prehending when the intellect cannot reach the bottom of His attributes, yet nothing prevents a person from comprehending Him. He is that being whose existence even an atheist feels in His heart of hearts. Undoubtedly God is free and sublime and bears no comparison with anyone, then how can anyone have the audacity to deny Him.†Father of SufismAli's religious devotion and nearness to God has earned him the title of â€Å"Father of Sufism†. Most of the Sufi orders claim their descent from Ali, and according to Ali Hajjweri, Ali is ranked very high in the line of Sufism.   Ali is considered the Shaykh as regards the principles and practices of Sufism, as stated by Junayd of Baghdad.Communion with GodAt times, Ali would pray the whole night sobbing out of love and fear of God. For Ali, the purpose of knowledge was to awaken the spiritual faculties that every man possesses which in turn enable man to find his true and inner self.   Ali observed that man could only enjoy communion with God if he would stop being proud, embody discipline, overcome his lust and submit to the Will of God.He stressed on the people in his various sermons to lead a simple and pious life and not to indulge blindly in the pleasures of the world as the case was before Islam.. Ali said, â€Å"Man is a wave in the boundless Sea of God. As long as man's vision is clouded by ignorance and sensuality he will consider himself a separate entity, different from God. But when the veil between him and God is lifted, he will then know what he really is, the wave will then merge with the ocean†.Ali on the Spiritual Front:Ali was a wealth of knowledge. Several of the traditions (Ahadith) of the Holy Prophet are narrated by him. He was one of those companions of the Holy Prophet who used to learn the verses of the Quran as they were revealed. Later, after the death of the Holy Prophet, Ali also used to give sermons. In one such sermon, he explains the attributes of God with skillf ul oratory. Excerpts â€Å"All praise is due to the creator of the world whose wisdom is hidden. The various subjects of nature openly confirm his existence. He is not surpassed in strength and superiority. He is the nearest to us.No one can be nearer to us than He. His distance height has not segregated Him from His creation, and His nearness has not established His equality with His creation. He is that sublime and matchless Being in comprehending when the intellect cannot reach the bottom of His attributes, yet nothing prevents a person from comprehending Him. He is that being whose existence even an atheist feels in His heart of hearts. Undoubtedly God is free and sublime and bears no comparison with anyone, then how can anyone have the audacity to deny Him.†In another sermon, he reflected on the transitory stature of this world by remarking â€Å"For the wise, the world is a shadow, which may appear at one moment, and soon disappear.† In another sermon he makes pr ofound remarks by stating â€Å"Many men buy clothes, which instead of being worn by them are used in their coffin. Many persons build houses that instead of becoming abodes become their graves. No one has lived forever in this world, and no one has invented such a medicine which may make men immune from the clutches of death†. In another sermon, he discusses heaven and hell, stating his anxiety on man's subservience to lust, the excess of his longings. In yet another sermon, he termed the world as superficial, mortal and perishable.ConclusionShakespeare once remarked â€Å"Some people are born great, some achieve greatness while some have greatness thrust upon them†. As far as Ali goes, he achieved greatness through his excellent education under the watchful eye of the Holy Prophet, his absorption of Islamic teachings and virtues, his thirst for knowledge, bravery on the battlefield and the spiritual perfection that he embodied. Greatness need not be confused with suc cess. From the political point of view Ali may seem like a failure that was unable to quell the civil strife that raged his people and was eventually slay Ed. Instead Ali's greatness is of an unworldly nature for he set out to spiritually perfect those around him, in times of affluence and wealth.Ali was a man of remarkable qualities and principles. His personality embodied an unusual mix of spiritual perfection, bravery, knowledge and humbleness. He was one of those few people of his time, who could stare in the eyes of death so much that even death would start fearing of him He was an administrator, a judge, a philosopher, a statesman, a general and above all an exemplary for those seeking spiritual perfection.

How High School Sports Have Impacted My Life Essay

Participating in high school sports has been a positive and rewarding experience. There are so many benefits to being involved in sports. I have played baseball, basketball and golf and each one of these sports has taught me something about life, the world and myself in general. For example, when I played baseball, I learned the importance of teamwork. Baseball is a team sport and team members must learn to work together and support each other. Although I only played pitcher, I was part of the team and it felt good to belong. I was committed to doing my best and making my team proud. Basketball has been an equally rewarding sport. I was the captain of my basketball team and this experience helped me to develop my leadership skills. As the team captain I had to set a good example for the team members. It was important for me to maintain a positive attitude and try to keep the team motivated. I had to do my best so that the team members would also try their best. The leadership skills that I develop from being the captain of my basketball team will help me in my future career. I learned how to be responsible and how to make decisions and theses skills will always be useful. In addition, I also played golf. Although golf is not a team sport, it is beneficial to everyone who plays. Golf taught me to be able to focus for long periods of time. Golf also requires a lot of practice, so I had to be diligent with practice, and I became a more patient person because of golf. Golf is more than just a sport. It helps to improve thinking skills and the ability to plan. When playing golf I had to think carefully and be able to concentrate with people watching me. I had to make sure that I did not get distracted. Even though golf is a competition, many times I felt like I was only competing with myself. I mean, I just though about what I was trying to accomplish instead of worrying about what the other players were doing. The game of golf is like real life because we have to think about what we want as individuals and learn to focus on our lives. Sports have impacted my life in many positive ways. I learned self-discipline and the importance of making an effort. This has also helped me with my studies. I am an honor student and sports contributed to my ability to discipline myself and stay focused when studying. Sports have also helped me to stay in shape and exercise regularly. For all of these reasons I feel so lucky to have the opportunity to participate in sports.

The relationship between the executive, legislature and judiciary Essay

The relationship between the executive, legislature and judiciary - Essay Example The orthodox approach to judicial review is therefore based upon the absolute and indivisible sovereignty of Parliament rather than the independence of the judiciary5. Oxford Professor A.V. Dicey set out the fundamental principles of Britain’s unwritten Constitution, and the role of judges within the context of those principles by stating that the indivisibility of Parliamentary power requires that all exercise of Governmental power must be authorized by Parliament, since it is the source of all valid authority.6 As a result, the British power of judicial review would not include the power to invalidate Acts of Parliament, rather the Courts may only use their powers to constrain any abuse of powers by the other arms of Government, such as the legislative and executive branches7. However, existing provisions permit the Lords of the Appellate Committee to also participate in the legislative business of the Upper House8, thereby raising the question of validity of judicial indepe ndence. This has been addressed in the Constitutional Reform Act of 2005, which aims to strengthening democracy and enhance the credibility of public institutions9 while also recognizing the value of judicial independence and the need to preserve it.10 Furthermore, the separation of powers between the three branches of Government as spelt out by Montesquieu11 is unclear in the context of the British judicial process. In view of present threats from terrorism, the Government has enacted sweeping legislation against terrorists12 tilting.

Business Information Systems (tesco's data processing and networks) Essay

Business Information Systems (tesco's data processing and networks) - Essay Example Tesco’s information systems can be studied from different angles. We shall focus on studying them from the functionality aspect. Let us analyze one of the critical components of Tesco’s Information Systems, the Supply Chain Management System. Tesco is well known for its best practices in Supply Chain Management, which includes â€Å"lean management† and using RFID technology. The key strategy behind maintaining advantage over its competitors has been innovation in the supply chain. Tesco has aimed to innovate at each point of its supply chain. This includes point of sales management, continuous replenishment system, cross dock distribution centers and use of a single vehicle to distribute to several stores (ICMR n.d.). The Continuous replenishment system is a key component in Tesco’s Supply Chain system. The application monitors and controls the inventory in real time at all stores. This provides with real time data to analyze and take important decisions. This modernized application is of unique type and has been deployed in all of Tesco’s data centers across the world. Having a common operating model across all centers around the world, Tesco saves a lot of cost in deployment and maintenance of systems. A company called Micro Focus modernized and extended Tesco’s Continuous Replenishment (CR) application to operate on the latest IBM System p servers and AIX Unix (Computing 2007). MIS system at Tesco is another component of the overall information system of Tesco. After achieving massive growth and expansion, Tesco came up with the idea of developing a single Management Information System (MIS) to fulfill both local and global data reporting requirements. The aim of the MIS is to spread out the key practices and performance indicators at all locations and provide business insight at each store irrespective of the size or maturity of

Capitalization and Depreciation Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Capitalization and Depreciation - Research Paper Example If a company, for example, pays $20,000 in cash for equipment, its financial statements will not show that it spent $20,000. The statement will instead show that it converted $20,000 cash into $20,000 worth of equipment which is an asset. Expensing costs refers to reporting them on the income statements as outflows of money. When a company pays $12,000 for rent arrears, its financial statements indicate that money has been spent. Expenses decrease a companys profit or net income. The more costs businesses capitalize on rather than expense, the higher the profits they report to shareholders (Bragg 2007). GAAP refers business assets as the things the business controls or owns and have measurable economic value. When something does not fit in the description of an asset, it cannot be capitalized. Buildings, land, equipment, stocks, bonds, and items held in the inventory have future economic value that is measurable hence can be capitalized as assets. Other costs incurred in advertising, research, development, and marketing should be expensed. Although such costs are meant to produce future value, such value cannot be measured or evaluated at present (Jarnagin 2006). GAAP enables a company to capitalize the costs of acquiring assets and preparing them for use. Suppose a production company purchases a $13 million machine from a manufacturer in Italy. The company can capitalize on the buying price of the machine and also capitalize on the costs incurred in transporting the equipment from Italy. Assemblage costs, costs due to necessary modifications on the machine, taxes and tariffs paid for the equipment can be included on the capitalized costs. On smaller scale businesses, if a factory buys $98 in stock for investment intentions and pays a $1 commission, the company can capitalize on the full cost of acquisition cost: $99 (Weiss 2006). When companies capitalize on assets, it does not mean or refer

Research/argumentative paper about Achilles and Agamemnon Research - 1

/argumentative about Achilles and Agamemnon - Research Paper Example His conflict with Achilles begins when Agamemnon is forced to give up his captured prize, the woman Chryseis who was the daughter of the local priest to Apollo. When Agamemnon refused to ransom her to her father, Apollo sent a plague against the Greek army until the girl was returned. Agamemnon agreed to return her on condition that he got the other girl, Briseis, who had been awarded to Achilles. Its easy to see the argument that takes place after that as childish pouting on the part of Achilles, but this conflict tells us perhaps more about this society than the epic battle between Hector and Achilles. In the conflict between Achilles and Agamemnon, it is possible to see the social structure of the Greek army as a collection of allies rather than an encampment of a single, unified, cohesive army. Its also clear that the insult to Achilles is not only the lack of respect toward him as also being a leader of men in the taking away of a prize, but also in the over-generosity of Agamem nons later peace offerings which would subjugate Achilles as a servant of sorts to Agamemnon. Through his behavior, Achilles allows us to understand important subtleties of Greek social life and gain insight into important concepts in our own social structure. The ancient Greeks were organized according to a very specific social structure that had many subtleties not necessarily recognized today. Rather than being written as a specific code, these subtleties were contained in various expected forms of behavior and informal codes of conflict. For example, it is often forgotten among Achilles critics that the Greek army was not the single entity we think of today when we think of the American forces. Instead, it was a collection of armies, each led by their own leader as each leader agreed to fight on the side of Agamemnon (Donlan, 2002). This meant Agamemnon owed his

Cultural and social experiences - Body image Essay

Cultural and social experiences - Body image - Essay Example The essay "Cultural and social experiences - Body image" discovers the concept of body image in the fashion. Examining the importance of body image and how it relates to society creates a specific association with society, culture and the associations which are made among individuals who are searching for different ideologies about how to approach their personal identity. The concept of fashion and body image in society links together through the use of mass media and the associations as a part of the cultural order. This begins with fashion and dress becoming a way in which one operates with their body and how one shows their level of health. The concept of fashion becomes associated with society specifically because of the fashion system that is surrounding fashion and dress. These are interrelated to the ideas of body image through the structure of fashion and the importance of the body in defining how the body should look. When associating with fashion, there is also a specific l ink to one being a part of the right social order while defining identity, personality and a sense of attractiveness within society. The belief of attractiveness comes from the definition of what beauty means, specifically which correlates with the ideas of fashion and how these link to society. The definition of beauty and links to social order come from fashion and further with the beliefs that are created from fashion and dress. The ideology of human beliefs and values comes from not only the ideologies. that an individual has within the family or experience. The environment of culture and social order also creates different standards about what one believes and the self – image which they carry. The association is one which is created from the psychological beliefs that are a part of society and the way in which this builds and develops with needs for a culture to hold specific standards. The individual then creates the same beliefs based on the influences from society, s pecifically which come from industries, media and other components within society. The result is an understanding of attitudes and values that are surrounded around a consumer society and which create an understanding that fashion builds a sense of identity, value and belief in one’s role within society (Porter, 2000:15). The Body in Society and Psychology The structure and beliefs within society and culture are furthered with the way in which the body image becomes linked to psychological beliefs about the body. The concept of fashion is one which has a specific link to body image and what it means to be beautiful. The image begins with adornments, fashion statements and dress that define the latest trends in society that one will look the best in. This is followed with models that are required to have a thinner figure or which have to be fit at a certain level. This creates a sense of what it means to have the right body image and figure while discounting other images that are within society. The result is the concept of idealizing the different factors that are stressed in society and from the fashion that is a part of the main image. As this occurs, there is a sense of internalization that occurs with women and men with what it means to look beautiful and in the best fashions (Thompson, 2001: 91). There are a variety of examples that lead to the internationalization of what it means to be thin and the pressures which come from the models in fashion that all have the same look. Figure 1 shows a series of models that depict the ideology of remaining thin while

Critical analysis of the associated persons provisions of Part III of Essay - 1

Critical analysis of the associated persons provisions of Part III of the Family Law Act 1996 (in particular section s.62(3)) - Essay Example As the ‘associated persons’ clause has major influence in deciding the nature and extent of domestic violence, it has been mainly discussed under present study. A wide range of people are able to apply for orders under Part IV of family act 1996. Under the previous law, only current spouses and cohabitants could apply for non-molestation orders. Under the new Act, a number of different categories of "associated person" are able to apply for such an order, including current and former spouses, current and former cohabitants, those who have agreed to marry one another, and certain relatives. An associated person other than a spouse, former spouse, cohabitant, or former cohabitant may only apply for an occupation order on a property where they are already entitled to occupy it 2. There is a strong need to balance the interests of innocent associated persons and victims. Helen Reece discussed about the empirical, principled and empirical rationales relating to acts comprising of ‘associated persons’ clause. He opined that with reference to the empirical rationale, the extent of violence that the aggregate of associated persons suffers is not high enough to justify privileging associated persons over other citizens with regard to protection from violence. He also pointed that as far as the principled rationale is concerned, the impetus for domestic violence legislation was based on isolation and inequality, which are not experienced in particular by the category of associated persons when taken as a whole. As far as the ideological rationale is concerned, it is saddening to note that intimacy and equality are emerging as the touchstones of a newer rationale for domestic violence legislation, which rightly has more to do with isolation and inequality than intimacy and equality (Helen Reece, 2006). However thorough study and analysis of the section 62 (3) of Part IV of Family law act 1996 is necessary to critically evaluate the role of associated

Southern blotting application Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Southern blotting application - Assignment Example A labeled DNA sequence is usually an RFLP probe that hybridizes with either a single or multiple fragments of the digested DNA sample after separation by gel electrophoresis resulting to showing a unique blotting pattern attributed to a genotype that is specific to a locus. RFLP probes are usually short, single or low copy genomic DNA or cDNA clones. Application of RFLP probes are usually used in variation analysis such as in paternity tests, ping and diagnosis of hereditary diseases. RFLP probes are also used in genome mapping. RFLPs are detected by using restriction enzyme that can recognize and fragment a sample of DNA where there is a specific short sequence. This step is known as restriction enzyme digestion. Single nucleotide polymorphisms can either create or destroy restriction endonuclease recognition sites therefore affecting the length and the quantity of DNA fragments resulting from restriction enzyme digestion. Agarose gel electrophoresis separates the resulting DNA fragments and transferred to a membrane through a Southern blot procedure. The membrane is a paper like matrix made up of nitrocellulose and usually has a slight positive charge. The fragment lengths that are complementary to the RFLP probes and are considered as alleles in genetic analysis is determined by the hybridization of the membrane to the labeled DNA probe (National Center for Biotechnology Information ). In developing RFLP probes, a methylation sensitive enzyme digests the total DNA thus enriching the library for sequences that are single or low copy expressed. The digested DNA is size fractionated on preparative agarose gel and excision, elusion and cloning into plasmid vector of is done. The digested plasmids are consequently screened for inserts. Total sheared DNA can be used to probe southern blots of the inserts to select clones that can hybridise to single and low copy sequences. Genomic DNA of different genotypes

The Accounting Scandal at WorldCom Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 7500 words

The Accounting Scandal at WorldCom - Essay Example The case study shall then discuss the specific nature, and occurrence of financial statement fraud and examines how the fraud was discovered from a forensic accounting perspective. The research shall also look at the results of the regulatory investigation and criminal prosecution in trying to understand the potential consequences of the fraud to the corporation -- the management, board of trustees, shareholders - the employees and the investing public. The research shall conclude with a discussion of the lessons offered by the WorldCom case for evaluating future financial statement and accounting fraud cases. The turn of the century saw Corporate America hitting the news headlines many a time nationally and internationally; however, for the wrongest reasons - disgraceful scandals of financial accounting frauds by some of the most high-held. I. Introduction The turn of the century saw Corporate America hitting the news headlines many a time nationally and internationally; however, for the wrongest reasons - disgraceful scandals of financial accounting frauds by some of the most high-held corporations. Beginning with Xerox Corporation in 2000, a series of financial accounting scandals surfaced the corporate American landscape in these years, exposing the depraved and disgraceful faces of corporate greed and corruption. Disclosing fraudulent misrepresentation in financial statements worth multi-million dollars and/or other accounting irregularities, eventually collapsing and filing bankruptcy, many large and reputed companies such as Enron, Tyco International, Kmart, Global Crossing, WorldCom, et al literally shocked the business world. The exposure not only resulted in indictment and ignominy of the principal players in the fraud and potential losses to the company and public investors but also caused an inevitable erosion of public conf idence and trust in corporate actions, the cornerstone of U.S. market capitalism. The series of financial accounting frauds that surfaced the corporate American landscape in the late 1990s and early 2000s has brought to fore the role and significance of forensic accountants and forensic accounting perspectives - "the how and why" of financial statements - in corporate accounting and auditing practices. [Thiede, 2003]Â  

Summarry scent of apples Essay Example for Free

Summarry scent of apples Essay Job Method With Job production, the complete task is handled by a single worker or group of workers. Jobs can be small-scale/low technology as well as complex/high technology. Low technology jobs: here the organization of production is extremely simply, with the required skills and equipment easily obtainable. This method enables customers specific requirements to be included, often as the job progresses. Examples include: hairdressers; tailoring High technology jobs: high technology jobs involve much greater complexity and therefore present greater management challenge. The important ingredient in high-technology job production isproject management, or project control. The essential features of good project control for a job are: Clear definitions of objectives- how should the job progress (milestones, dates, stages) Decision-making process how are decisions taking about the needs of each process in the job, labour and other resources Examples of high technology / complex jobs: film production; large construction projects (e.g. the Millennium Dome) Batch Method As businesses grow and production volumes increase, it is not unusual to see the production process organised so that Batch methods can be used. Batch methods require that the work for any task is divided into parts or operations. Each operation is completed through the whole batch before the next operation is performed. By using the batch method, it is possible to achieve specialisation of labour. Capital expenditure can also be kept lower although careful planning is required to ensure that production equipment is not idle. The main aims of the batch method are, therefore, to: Concentrate skills (specialisation) Achieve high equipment utilisation This technique is probably the most commonly used method for organising manufacture. A good example is the production of electronic instruments. Batch methods are not without their problems. There is a high probability of poor work flow, particularly if the batches are not of the optimal size or if there is a significant difference in productivity by each operation in the process. Batch methods often result in the build up of significant work in progress or stocks (i.e. completed batches waiting for their turn to be  worked on in the next operation). Flow Methods Flow methods are similar to batch methods except that the problem of rest/idle production/batch queuing is eliminated. Flow has been defined as a method of production organisation where the task is worked on continuously or where the processing of material is continuous and progressive, The aims of flow methods are: -Improved work material flow -Reduced need for labour skills Added value / completed work faster Flow methods mean that as work on a task at a particular stage is complete, it must be passed directly to the next stage for processing without waiting for the remaining tasks in the batch. When it arrives at the next stage, work must start immediately on the next process. In order for the flow to be smooth, the times that each task requires on each stage must be of equal length and there should be no movement off the flow production line. In theory, therefore, any fault or error at a particular stage In order that flow methods can work well, several requirements must be met: (1) There must be substantially constant demand If demand is unpredictable or irregular, then the flow production line can lead to a substantial build up of stocks and possibility storage difficulties. Many businesses using flow methods get round this problem by building for stock i.e. keeping the flow line working during quiet periods of demand so that output can be produced efficiently. (2) The product and/or production tasks must be standardised Flow methods are inflexible they cannot deal effectively with variations in the product (although some variety can be accomplished through applying different finishes, decorations etc at the end of the production line). (3) Materials used in production must be to specification and delivered on time Since the flow production line is working continuously, it is not a good idea to use materials that vary in style, form or quality. Similarly, if the required materials are not available, then the whole production line will come to a close with potentially serious cost consequences. (4) Each operation in  the production flow must be carefully defined and recorded in detail (5) The output from each stage of the flow must conform to quality standards Since the output from each stage moves forward continuously, there is no room for sub-standard output to be re-worked (compare this with job or batch production where it is possible to compensate for a lack of quality by doing some extra work on the job or the batch before it is completed). The achievement of a successful production flow line requires considerable planning, particularly in ensuring that the correct production materials are delivered on time and that operations in the flow are of equal duration.

Parasite-Induced Changes in Host Behaviour

Parasite-Induced Changes in Host Behaviour Parasite-Induced Changes in Host Behaviour: Is it Truly Parasitic Manipulation? Introduction Behavioural changes in the host when infected with a parasite were first observed in 1952, when van Dobben discovered that fish caught by cormorants (waterbird) were more likely to play intermediate host to the cestode, Ligula intestinalis than fish caught by fishermen (cited in Thomas et al., 2005). However it wasn’t until 1972 that the ability of parasites to manipulate their host’s behaviour in order to facilitate their transmission was discovered and demonstrated by Holmes and Bethel (cited in Poulin, 2000). They showed that infection of the parasite, Polymorphus paraoxus caused the amphipod, Gammaeras lacustris to display abnormal behaviours that led to an increase in its predation by ducks, the definitive host of the parasite. Since then there has been considerable research carried out in this area supporting the idea that parasites have adapted in order to manipulate their host, with a large number of parasites now known to cause changes to their hosts behaviour. There is a wide array of influenced behaviours from anti-predator behaviour e.g. mice infected with the tapeworm, Taenia crassiceots show no stress response to predation (Wheat, 2009); to reproductive behaviour e.g. female mice infected with the nematode, Trinchinella spiralis show inhibition of their sexual behaviours, limiting possible mate response (Kavaliers et al., 2000). In a few cases completely new behaviours in infected hosts have been observed, for example orb-weaving spiders infected by a parasitic wasp build unusual webs that are designed to protect the emerging larva once the host spider dies (Eberhard, 2010). More recently, the idea of parasitic manipulation has come under criticism, due to the lack of supporting evidence demonstrating that these behavioural changes provide parasites with a fitness benefit (a prerequisite of an adaptive trait), either in the form of increased transmission or survival (Poulin, 1998) and has therefore been suggested that the observed ch anges may just be an inevitable consequence of infection, or in some cases mediated by the host itself in order to counteract the negative fitness effects of parasitic infection. Understanding the origin of these behavioural changes is of great importance as there are many manipulative parasites that have implications for human health, such as malaria which alters the behaviour in the mosquito in order to increase transmission to humans (Lynch et al., 2014) and Toxoplasma gondii which can alter the personality of infected individuals (Worth et al., 2014). Manipulative parasites are also seen as playing as important a role as predation in shaping biological communities, even having an influence on non-host species (Hatcher et al., 2014). Adaptive vs. Non-adaptive Behavioural Change The argument that some of the previously observed behavioural changes of the host during parasitic infection are non-adaptive and just a consequence of infection generally refers to three different kinds of phenomena (Thomas et al., 2005). The first is the idea that the behavioural changes are just a side-effect of parasitic infection and confer no adaptive value for either the parasite or its host. However this is a questionable explanation as it is highly unlikely that any such change in behaviour will not provide a positive effect for either organism. Therefore this explanation should only be used if there is strong supporting evidence and not used as a default explanation, for example the parasitic cestode, Hymenolepis diminuta was shown to cause reduced fecundity in females of the beetle intermediate host, Tenebrio molitor and was seen as a side-effect, until further research discovered that the parasite produced a substance that inhibited vitellogenin uptake (Moore, 2012). Seco ndly some behavioural changes may be considered beneficial to the parasite, but are not due to manipulation by the parasite in order to do so, for example when the parasite Ligula intestinalis infects the Roach (Rutilus rutilus) a change in host migration to areas where predation by the parasites definitive host, ichtyopahgous predatory birds, are more common is observed (Loot et al., 2001). However it was found that these areas are more productive and it is therefore more likely that the increased energy demands caused by the parasitic infection had caused the Roach to migrate to these areas in order to negate this negative effect of the parasitic infection and increase its own fitness. Thirdly other adaptations by the parasite may have coincidentally caused behavioural changes in the host which unintentionally led to an increase in the transmission of the parasite to its definitive host, for example Fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) are commonly infected by the trematode, Orni thodiplostomum ptychocheilus which caused a reduction in behaviours associated with host vision by the encystment of the parasite in the optic lobes, which leads to an increase in its predation by piscivorous birds. However this encystment in the eye may originally been favored by selection as it offers the parasite protection from the host’s immune system and not because it increased the transmission of the parasite to its definitive host (Shirakashi and Goater, 2005) On the other hand the argument for the adaptive nature of behavioural changes of the host during parasite infection is normally supported by the idea that it should show some degree of specificity in the intermediate host, for example P. laevis induces various behavioural and physiological changes in the crustacean amphipod, Gammarus pulex, such as altered drifting behaviour, altered anti-predator behaviour, partial castration and lower immune activity. These changes are not observed in Gammarus roeseli a closely related species, showing that the alterations by the parasite are specific to Gammarus pulex (Lagrue et al., 2007) Examinations on the effect of the acanthocephalan parasite, Moniliformis moniliformis on the behaviour of different species of cockroaches by Moore and Gotelli found that different behavioural changes had evolved for different species of cockroach supporting the adaptive nature of the host behavioural change (cited in Poulin, 1998). Indirect methods have also be en used to demonstrate the adaptive nature of altered behaviours in the host by determining whether the timing of observed behavioural changes coincide with the period when the parasite is infective to its next host. For example Tribolium confusum beetles infected with the nematode, Protospirura muricola only show observable changes in the behaviour of the beetles that make them more vulnerable to predation when the parasite has developed to the third larval stage. No behavioural change is observed in beetles home to the first and second larval stage. (Schutgens et al., 2013) Behaviour as a Form of Host Defense Not all changes in behaviour can be attributed to the manipulation of the host by the parasite as they do not benefit the parasite. The host is under selection to avoid parasites, and when possible to compensate for the negative effects of infection. Behaviour is often used in order to achieve this and is the first line of defence against parasites as it allows animals to avoid becoming infected in the first place (Moore, 2012). Animals may avoid infection by parasite propagules through behavioural means such as territoriality, site-specific defecation and mate selection. More drastic measures may be taken when trying to avoid ectoparasites, including migration, shifting habitats and lethal combat e.g. howler monkeys invest a significant proportion of their energy to slap at flies, and execute over 1500 slaps in a 12 hour resting period. Once a host becomes infected with a parasite, its behaviour will also be altered in order to minimise damage caused by the parasite. For example ani mals display sickness behaviours e.g. fever and behavioural chills, which may help in obtaining the benefit of increased care from other members of a group/population. Some animals, for example Chimpanzees, show self-medicating behaviour in which infected animals may consume medicinal plants that are not part of their usual diet. It is also possible in some cases that both parasite and host are shown to benefit from a change in host behaviour, in these cases it can be difficult to determine which organism is responsible for change, or whether it is a shared adaptation, for example caterpillars of several butterfly species play host to braconid wasp parasitoids and unlike non-parasitised individuals they perch at the top of high branches. It has been suggested this benefits the host by making itself more likely to eaten by a predator, killing both the parasitoid and host, but protecting its nearby relatives from the parasite. However it may also help the parasite by reducing the risk of hyperparasitism and therefore increasing its chance of survival. (Poulin, 1998). Conclusion Up to this point mainly laboratory based studies have been carried out in order to assess host behavioural changes due to parasite infection. Future research into the area needs to include field based studies in order to fully assess these changes in the natural environment. Currently very little is known about the molecular and genetic mechanisms underlying these changes. Therefore the basis as to how parasites cause these behavioural changes in there host is an area that needs to be addressed in order for these behavioural changes to ever be fully understood. Word Count: 1490 References Thomas, F., Adamo, S. and Moore, J. 2005. Parasitic manipulation: where are we and where should we go? Behavioural Processes, 68: 185-199 Poulin, R. 2000. Manipulation of host behaviour by parasites: a weakening paradigm? Proceedings of the Royal Society Biological Sciences, 267 (1445): 787-792 Wheat, S. E. B. 2009. Parasitic manipulation: The current state and future direction. University of Sheffield, Department of Animal and Plant Sciences Kavaliers, M., Colwell, D. D. and Choleris, E. 2000. Parasites and behaviour: An ethopharmacological perspective. Parasitology Today. 16 (11): 464-468 Eberhard, G. W. 2010. New types of behavioural manipulation of host spiders by a parasitoid wasp. Psyche: A Journal of Entomology. 2010: 1-4 Poulin, R. 1998. Evolution and phylogeny of behavioural manipulation of insect hosts by parasites. Parasitology. 116: S3-S11 Cator, L. J., Lynch, P. A., Thomas, M. B. and Read, A. F. 2014. Alterations in mosquito behaviour by malaria parasites: potential impact on force of infection. Malaria Journal. 13(164) Worth, A. R., Lymbery, A. J. and Thompson, R. C. A. 2013. Adaptive host manipulation by Toxoplasma gondii: fact or fiction? Trends in Parasitology. 29(4): 150-155 Hatcher, M. J., Dick, J. T. A. and Dunn, A. M. 2014. Parasites that change predator or prey behaviour can have keystone effects on community composition. Biology Letters. 10: 20130879 Moore, J. 2012. An overview of parasite-induced behavioural alterations – and some lessons from bats. The Journal of Experimental Biology. 216: 11-17 Loot, G., Brosse, S., Lek, S. and Guegan, J. F. 2001. Behaviour of roach (Rutilus rutilus L.) altered by Ligula intestinalis (Cestoda: Pseudophyllidea: a field demonstration. Freshwater Biology. 46: 1219-1227 Shirakashi, S. and Goater, C. P. 2005. Chronology of parasite-induced alteration of fish behaviour; effects of parasite maturation and host experience. Parasitology. 130: 177-183 Lagrue, C., Kaldonski, N., Perrot-Minnot, M. J., Motreuil, S. and Bollache, L. 2007. Modification of hosts’ behaviour by a parasite: field evidence for adaptive manipulation. Ecology. 88(11): 2839-2847 Schutgens, M., Cook, B., Gilbert, F. and Behnke, J. M. 2013. Behavioural changes in the flour beetle Tribolium confusum infected with the spirurid nematode Protospirura muricola. Journal of Helminthology. 1-12

Matching the Differences in Grammar

Matching the Differences in Grammar Matching the Differences in Grammar and Lexicon in Translation Process Introduction In Nidas view, Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style (Nida, Eugene A., 1975: 14). In other words, translation is the process of transformation from a speech product (or text) produced in one language to a speech product (or text) in another language. During this process of transformation the level of content in the source text should remain unchanged. However, the modes of thinking and expression of English and Chinese are very different. The influential European-born American literary critic, translator, and educator George Steiner remarks, The difficulties of translating Chinese into a western language are notorious. Chinese is composed mainly of monosyllabic units with a wide range of diverse meanings. The grammar lacks clear tense distinctions. The characters are logographic but many contain pictorial rudiments or suggestions. The relations betwee n propositions are paratactic rather than syntactic and punctuation marks represent breathing pauses far more than they do logical or grammatical segmentations. (George Steiner/After Babel, 1998: 271) Chinese is a refined language with a tightly knit structure. Though it is one of the most ancient languages in the world, it still has strong expressiveness and utility value. During the process of translation, various differences between the grammar and lexicon are very common. The Chinese translator can never be so cocksure of what an English sentence or passage really means without being crystal clear about its syntactic and textual structure as well as the lexical and grammatical meanings of the expressions it contains. And a well-trained bilingual translator should have the ability to handle all these differences and give out a compete transcript of the original work, making sure the style and manner of writing are of the same character as that of the source text. In the following part, I will analyze some features in the grammar and lexicon of English and Chinese and give some translation strategies. Lexicon English has a large vocabulary. Historically, it absorbed a giant number of words from other languages, i.e. French, Latin and Greek. Given the various origins and the synonyms already existed in English, the English speaker always have several choices to express a certain meaning. Hence there are many synonyms and near-synonyms in English. Also, polysemy appears widely in this language. Chinese has copious synonyms as well as near-synonyms, too. So the translators need to carefully consider the differences between all of the options and find the right word to use in particular situations. There is no change of forms in Chinese vocabulary. The Chinese language users mainly express the meaning of a sentence through the words, the word orders and their internal logical relations. The English vocabulary has copious changes of forms, for instance, the nouns have singular and plural forms; the verbs have different forms when the person, the case, the tense, or the mood is changing; the adjectives and adverbs both have the comparative degree and the superlative degree; many words also can add the prefix or the suffix to change its meaning. While translating English to Chinese, the translator needs to add some words or change the form of Statement to show the change of forms in the English text. While translating Chinese to English, the translator should change certain forms to match the tense, the mood and the voice in the Chinese text. Here are two English sentences and their Chinese translations. His being neglected by the host added to his uneasiness (). With defenses rig idly constructed in our own childhood and beyond, we can become frozen in our ability to adapt to the new role of caring for our children in a consistent and clear manner. Normal aspects of our childrens experience such as their emotionality, their helplessness and vulnerability, and their dependence on us can feel threatening and become intolerable (,,,,) In the first sentence, added to is translated as not which is translated word by word because uneasiness means which does not fit well with . The second sentence comes from a psychological book about parenthood named Parenting from the Inside Out which was translated to Chinese by me. There are two children in the text, I translated the first to and the second . The reason is that the first one is in the text of the new role of caring for our children, it is improper to say which is too redundant. Based on the code of the Chinese language, I omitted ? which stands for the plural form and which is a part of the   subject th at needless to mention. Generally speaking, in English, nouns, prepositions, adjectives and adverbs are more active and can express more meanings in the sentences while in Chinese, verbs, phrases and clauses are more powerful. Some adverbs in English are very informative which can be translated as a separate Chinese sentence or clause. In contrast, some Chinese clauses can be translated as a certain English word. For example, ,(He is a greenhand). Grammar The overt cohesive relationships between parts of the texts are necessarily linked to a languages grammatical system (Halliday and Hasan 1976: 44). Thus, grammatical differences between languages will be expressed by changes in the types of ties used to mark cohesion in the source and target texts (Shoshana Blum-Kulka, 1986: 18). I will analyze the grammatical differences between English and Chinese in terms of sentence word order, sentence structure and paragraph awareness. Sentence Word Order There are some similarities in the word order of the sentences between English and Chinese, for example, the orders of the main part of a sentence (the subject, the predicate, the object and the predicative) are the same. The differences lie in the positions of the attribute and the adverbial. Position of Attribute In Chinese sentences, the attribute is always in front of the modified noun. As for English, if the attribute is a word, it is placed in front of the modified noun too; if the attribute is a phrase, then its position is always behind the noun. For example, The man you saw yesterday is his cousin(). Position of adverbial If the adverbial is a word, it should be placed in front of the modified adjectives and other adverbials, no matter in English or Chinese. For example, He works very hard (). While the adverbial (a word) is modifying a verb, for Chinese, it should be placed in front of the modified word; for English, the position is more flexible. For instance, IT industry has been developing rapidly in these years(IT).The molecules of a gas are moving about extremely fast in all directions (). If the adverbial is a phrase, when it is modifying a verb, in English, the position of the phrase is flexible while in Chinese, in most cases, the phrase is in front of the modified part, e.g. William left the shop without a word (). Sentence structure The English sentences value hypotaxis while the Chinese sentences pay more attention on parataxis. The English language always use morphological changes, conjunctions, prepositions, attributive clauses and absolute structures to indicate the grammatical relation between sentence elements. Having no morphological changes, attributive clauses and absolute structures and few conjunctions and prepositions, the grammatical relations between elements in Chinese sentences are often indicated implicitly. The Chinese sentential form is more casual than English. For instance, They are striving for the ideal which is close to the heart of every Chinese and for which, in the past, many Chinese have laid down their lives (,,,). Paragraph awareness In English, if the whole paragraph only mentioned one person or a certain thing, the subjects seldom change which keeps coherence of the text. As for Chinese, there is no such rule for maintaining the subjects in a paragraph. Hence, while translating a Chinese paragraph to English, the translator should pay attention to the subjects. Here is an example. ,,,,, (She got into her chair and was soon carried through the city wall. Peeping through the gauze panel which served as a window, she could see streets and buildings more rich and elegant and throngs of people more lively and numerous than she had ever seen in her life before) (Yang Hsien-yi/ Gladys Yang, 1995: 72). This sentence comes from the Classical Chinese Literature A Dream of Red Mansions and the English version was translated by Chinese translators Yang Hsien-yi and his wife Gladys Yang. The Chinese paragraph does not even mention the subject, but we can define that there are two subjects in this paragraph the person and t he street. As for the English version, in order to keep the coherence, the translator skillfully merges the second subject into the text by taking it as the object. Conclusion One of the translation standards put forward by Chinese translator and reformer Yan Fu in the 19th century is faithfulness (and the rest two are comprehensiveness and elegance). It is obvious that faithfulness is the most important standard among the three. However, there are disparities between one language and another disparities in lexicon, in grammar and in linguistic structure, etc. So it is impossible to achieve the absolute faithfulness. But a professional bilingual translator can achieve the real faithfulness in a possible sense a faithful translation in good formality with not only the original context, but also the original form and style. Though there are many differences in lexicon and grammar between Chinese and English, as long as the translators mind these differences and take the related translation strategies, they still can contribute very profound translations and help people speaking different languages communicate with each other. (1,942 words) References Halliday, M. and R. Hasan, 1976. Cohesion in English. London: Longman. George Steiner, After Babel, 1998. Aspects of Language and Translation. Oxford: Oxford University Press Nida, Eugene A., 1975. Language Structure and Translation. Stanford: Standford University Press, California Shoshana blum-kulka, 1986. Interlingual and Intercultural Communication: Discourse and Cognition in Translation and Second Language Acquisition Studies. Tubingen: Narr Yang Hsien-yi/ Gladys Yang, 1995. A Dream of Red Mansions. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press 12/16/2009   Page7 of 7

Animal Rights Essay -- Legal Issues, Animal Rights

Justifying Animal Rights In this society, it is under law for all people have the basic rights under the universal declaration of human rights. As stated, this only benefits humans, where humans rule the world. So where does the rights of animals come from? Many people do not understand animal rights and how we should treat them equally and why. Through animal research and experimentations, humans are getting benefit and gains in the obscene inhumane ways; the poor animals are suffering through pain and distress, even though they have moral status and rights. A right is a particular way of protecting interests, to say that an interest is protected by a right, is to say that interest is protected against being ignored or violated simple because this will benefit someone else. So what are animal rights? Animal rights is the idea that animals have the same rights as humans, to live free of suffrage, just as important as living individuals, and with the same moral status as humans. According to Doris Lin, an animal rights attorney and the Vice President of Legal Affairs for the Bear Education and Resource Group, â€Å"They have a right to be free of oppression, confinement, use and abuse by humans.† However, rights are not absolute in the sense that their protection has no exception. David DeGrazia, the author of many scholarly animal rights books dealing ethical and philosophical issues, explained that animal rights might be unfamiliar to most people because of the daily abuses and killing toward animals that are viewed as socially a cceptable, and unconsciously ignored due to normal day-to-day activities and even festivals with animal killings for fun. (12) Animal abuses can be ranged from animal experimentations and testings... ... animal rights view, the animals, like humans have rights in the â€Å"utility- trumping sense†. The utility-trumping sense have vital interest that we must not override, even in an effort to maximize the utility for society. (Animal Rights, 20) Billions of animals are being slaughtered, abused, and harmed every year; causing enormous amounts of pain, suffering and distress upon them. It is wrong for humans to cause extended harm to animals for no compelling reason, for the fact that they have moral statuses. We have obligations to animals, and these are not simply grounded in human interests. However, the issues of moral status and equal consideration are far more fundamental and far-reaching in practical impact as DeGrazia have stated. (38) Animals have as much moral status and rights as humans do, and are most definitely worthy of our consideration in their lives.

Significance Of The Berlin Wall Essay -- European History Cold War

Significance of The Berlin Wall The Berlin Wall, built in August of 1961, was s physical symbol of the political and emotional divisions of Germany. The Wall was built because of a long lasting suspicion between the Soviet Union on one side and Western Europe and the United States on the other. For 28 years the Berlin Wall separated friends, families, and a nation. After WWII was over Germany was divided into four parts. The United States, Great Britain, and France controlled the three divisions that were formed in the Western half and the Eastern half was controlled by the Soviet Republic. The Western sections eventually united to make a federal republic, while the Eastern half became communist. Even though Berlin lay deep within the Soviet sector, the Allies thought it would be the best to divide this capital. Therefore Berlin was also divided into four parts. Since the Soviet Union was in control of the eastern half of Germany, they made East Berlin the capital of East Germany. The other three counties were each in control of a small part of what was to be West Germany. The Allies decided that they would come together to form one country out of their three divided parts. Those three divided parts formed West Germany. After all the land was divided the Soviet Union controlled East Germany. Just like the Soviet Union, the economy in East Germany was struggling to get back on its feet after the war. While West Berlin became a lively urban area like many American cities, East Berlin became what many thought of as a ‘Mini-Moscow’. In East Germany there was literary almost nothing. The shelves in the stores were practically bare, and what was there was not in very g ood quality. At first, the divisions between East and West Berlin were uncertain. There was nothing that divided the city. For more than ten years after the official split of the city, East Berlin saw a major emigration of East Germans, unhappy with the communist system. With nothing physical to separate East and West Berlin, migration from totalitarianism to democracy was as easy for East Berliners as changing houses. The Soviet Union went against their promises to the people of East Germany, and made East Germany a Communist country. This decision by the Soviet Union separated East Germany even more from the rest of Europe. East Germany was now all by itself, and by the summer of 1952 th... ...y important that the bigger part is long gone, which is tearing down the physical wall. The one and last element that is left for German people is the wall in their minds. As it can be seen from discussion above, only time can bring together the true reunification of German People. With the time, there is very little to do but wait, however we can help by helping and educating each other so what happened in 1961 won’t be repeated by generations to come. In conclusion Berlin Wall was an important milestone in the growth of the Cold War. It was the expansion that represented the thinking of a determined Communist system. Western Capitalism, which was more powerful, eventually defeated the system. The massive wall that did so much harm to a country was finally destroyed, and the people of Germany could now live the way they all wanted to live. They could live the life of freedom. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall East Germany has went through a lot of changes, and it still is not easy for all of the people in East Germany. But no matter how hard it is for the people of East Germany now, it is better than being alone and separated from their families, friends and rest of Europe.

Rich Christians Living in a Poor World :: Free Essays

"Let them eat cake" -- Marie-Antoinette "The poor you will always have with you" -- Matthew 26:11 There is a difference in wealth between the north/south divide. The Rich north obtains nearly four fifths of the worlds income whereas the Poor South has only one fifth. The North is rich and the South is poverty-stricken. By the word "rich I mean in a material sense - the north has plenty of material and financial wealth whereas the South has very little. However, for many people in the south, being materially wealthy is not something they desire, and they are therefore spiritually rich. It is impossible for many in the Rich North to be spiritually rich "oh how hard it is for the rich to enter the kingdom of God". Although, if they were to share their riches with the poor (as the bible encourages them to do) then having money, when used for the benefit of others is a good thing. 'For the love of money is the root of all evil: which while some coveted after, they have erred from the faith, and pierced themselves through with many sorrows.' Timothy 6:10. It is possible for world equality to be accomplished. The amount of money that requires appears a lot but when compared with the amount spent in HDC's on various things (such as cosmetics and ice cream) it appears to be a small amount. The following statistics are taken from the 1999 United Nations Human Development Report. Basic education, water and sanitation, and basic health and nutrition for every human on the planet would cost $28 billion. But that is $8 billion less than is spent on American cosmetics, ice cream in Europe and pet foods combined. It is thought by many that having no rich Christians while there is poverty in the world would be ridiculous. Having a certain number of rich Christians means that charities are able to operate. These charities help not only materially poor but spiritually poor to gain a better standard of life (before and after death.) If the Christians

Cast System in india

History of the Indian caste system From Wikipedia, the tree encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Indian society has consisted of thousands of endogamous clans and groups called latis since ancient times. The Brahmlnlcal scriptures and texts tried to bring this diversity under a comprehensible scheme which hypothesised four Idealised meta groups called varna.The first mention of the formal varna Indian caste system Is in the famous Purusha Sukta of the Rigveda, although it is the only mention in the entire body of the Vedas and has been decried as a much later, non-Vedic insertion y numerous Indologists like Max M?ller and also by Ambedkar. [citation needed] Contents 1 Hindu scriptures 2 Emergence of rigid caste structures 2. Mobility across the castes 3 Reform movements 4 Reterences 5 External links Hindu scriptures In the Vedic period, there also seems to have been no dlscrlmlnatlon against the Shudras on the Issue of hearing the sacred words of the Vedas and fully participating in all religious rituals, something which became progressively restricted in the later citation needed] Manusmriti, dated between 200 BCE and 100 CE, ontains some laws that codified the caste system. The Manu Smriti belongs to a class of books that are geared towards ethics, morals. nd social conduct – not spirituality or religion. Emergence of rigid caste structures In its later stages, the caste system is said to have become rigid, and caste began to be inherited rather than acquired by merit. In the past, members of dfferent castes would not partake in various activities, such as dining and religious gatherings, together. In addition, the performance of religious rites and rituals were restricted to Brahmins, who were the designated priesthood. Mobility across the castes The view ot the caste system as â€Å"static and unchanging† has been disputed by many scholars.For Instance, sociologists such as Bernard Buber and Marriott McKlm describe how the perception of th e caste system as a static and textual stratification has given way to the perception of the caste system as a more processual, empirical and contextual stratification. Other sociologists such as Y. B Damle have applied theoretical models to explain mobility and flexibility in the caste system in India. [2] According to these scholars, groups of lower-caste individuals could seek to elevate the status of their caste by attempting to emulate the practices of higher castes.Some scholars believe that the relative ranking of other castes was fluid or differed from one place to another prior to the arrival of the British. [3] According to some psychologists, mobility across broad caste lines may have been â€Å"minimal†, though sub-castes (Jatis) may change their social status over the generations by fission, re- the question of rigidity in Caste. In an ethnographic study of the Coorgs of Karnataka, e observed considerable flexibility and mobility in their caste hierarchies. [5][6 ] He asserts that the caste system is far from a rigid system in which the position of each component caste is fixed for all time.Movement has always been possible, and especially in the middle regions of the hierarchy. It was always possible for groups born into a lower caste to â€Å"rise to a higher position by adopting vegetarianism and teetotalism† i. e. adopt the customs of the higher castes. While theoretically â€Å"forbidden†, the process was not uncommon in practice. The concept of anskritization, or the adoption of upper-caste norms by the lower castes, addressed the actual complexity and fluidity of caste relations. Historical examples of mobility in the Indian Caste System among Hindus have been researched.There is also precedent of certain Shudra families within the temples of the Shrivaishava sect in South India elevating their caste. [2] Reform movements There have been cases of upper caste Hindus warming to the Dalits and Hindu priests, demoted to outc aste ranks, who continued practising the religion. An example of the latter was Dnyaneshwar, who was excommunicated from society in he 13th century, but continued to compose the Dnyaneshwari, a Dharmic commentary on the Bhagavad Gita. Other excommunicated Brahmins, such as Eknath, fought for the rights of untouchables during the Bhakti period.Historical examples of Dalit priests include Chokhamela in the 14th century, who was India's first recorded Dalit poet, Raidas, born into Dalit cobblers, and others. The 1 5th- century saint Ramananda also accepted all castes, including untouchables, into his fold. Most of these saints subscribed to the Bhakti movements in Hinduism during he medieval period that rejected casteism. Nandanar, a low-caste Hindu cleric, also rejected casteism and accepted Dalits. [7] In the 19th century, the Brahmo SamaJ under Raja Ram Mohan Roy, actively campaigned against untouchability.The Arya SamaJ founded by Swami Dayanand also renounced discrimination agains t Dalits. Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa founded the Ramakrishna Mission that participated in the emancipation of Dalits. Upper caste Hindus, such as Mannathu Padmanabhan also participated in movements to abolish Untouchability against Dalits, opening his amily temple for Dalits to worship. While there always have been places for Dalits to worship, the first â€Å"upper-caste† temple to openly welcome Dalits into their fold was the Laxminarayan Temple in Wardha in the year 1928 (the move was spearheaded by reformer Jamnalal Baja]).Also, the Satnami movement was founded by Guru Ghasidas, a Dalit himself. Other reformers, such as Mahatma Jyotirao Phule also worked for the emancipation of Dalits. Another example of Dalit emancipation was the Temple Entry Proclamation issued by the last Maharaja of Travancore in the Indian state of Kerala in the year 1936. The Maharaja proclaimed that â€Å"outcastes should not be denied the consolations and the solace of the Hindu faith†. Ev en today, the Sri Padmanabhaswamy temple that first welcomed Dalits in the state of Kerala is revered by the Dalit Hindu community.The 1930s saw key struggles between Mahatma Gandhi and B. R. Ambedkar, most notably over whether Dalits would have separate electorates or Joint electorates with reserved seats. The Indian National Congress was the only national organisation with a large Dalit following, but Gandhi nalysis of Untouchability, but lacked a workable political strategy: his conversion to Buddhism in 1956, along with millions of followers, highlighted the failure of his political endeavours. 8] India's first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, based on his own relationship with Dalit reformer Ambedkar, also spread information about the dire need to eradicate untouchability for the benefit of the Dalit community. In addition, other Hindu groups have reached out to the Dalit community in an effort to reconcile with them, with productive results.

Malaysia is rapidly developing towards being an industrial country

Chapter 1Introduction1.0 BackgroundMalaysia is quickly developing towards being an industrial state. Many industries such as heavy and light industries, little and average industries and backyard industries have been turning in the last 10 old ages. The addition in industrial and agricultural activities has created a new demand in lodging, urbanisation, transit and medicine as the population addition. All these will lend to environmental jobs particularly pollution due to the accretion of risky chemicals such as heavy metals in environment. Environmental pollution has become a major issue that requires immediate action as it may effects human wellness. Pollution can take many signifiers such as H2O and air that we breathe. Urbanization in developed and development state, civilisation and industrialisation make the state of affairs of the environment worsened as such that there is no more safe topographic point to populate. From the chemical science lexicon, pollution can be define as an unwanted alteration in the physical, chemical, or biological features of the natural environment, brought about by adult male ‘s activities. It may be harmful to human or non living things. Basically there are two chief categories of pollutants which are biodegradable which means it can be rendered harmless by natural procedures and need hence do no lasting injury if adequately dispersed or treated such as sewerage. Another type is nonbiodegradable which can non be break uping by microbic activity. For illustration heavy metals suc h as lead, DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbons used as pesticides, which finally accumulate in the environment and may be concentrated in nutrient ironss. Pollution besides can be describes as the debut of foreign substances into the biosphere. It may impact the dirt, rivers, seas, or the ambiance. The pollutants that are released from the anthropogenetic activities such as agricultural industries, unfastened combustion, solid waste disposal, sewerage intervention workss and transit produce risky and toxicant pollutants such as SO2, NOx, heavy metals and hydrocarbon compounds that effects non merely human but besides both workss and animate beings that can do decease. Some of these risky pollutants find their manner into the human system through the nutrient web. They may undergo biotransformation, metamorphosis and excreted without the hazard of toxicity depending on the chemical features of the compound and the dosage in human organic structure. However, some of the pollutants resist chemical and biological transmutation and accumulate in the tissues, including the nervousnesss, to do toxicity. The inauspicious effects of these pollu tants on the nervousnesss system give rise to neurotoxicity. Rana et al. , ( 2004 ) ; Katranitsas et al. , ( 2003 ) found that there is grounds that increasing exposure to toxic elements in Marine and tellurian beings is holding inauspicious toxicological effects. Therefore heavy metals pollution become serious issues that must been concerned. Unlike other pollutants such as crude oil hydrocarbons and domestic and municipal litter which may visibly construct up in the environment, hint metals in the environment may roll up unnoticed to toxic degrees. By and large, human wellness jobs associated with hint metal taint have been well-highlighted in the literature. In malice of the comparatively low degree of industrial activity in less developed parts there is however a high potency of toxic heavy metal pollution. The distribution of metals in the environment is a consequence of natural procedures ( vents, eroding, spring H2O, bacterial activity ) and anthropogenetic activities ( fossil fuel burning, industrial and agricultural procedures ) ( Florea and Busselberg, 2006 ) . Heavy metals such as arsenic lead, Cu, Cd, or Zn are released from the Earth ‘s crust into the environment through anthropogenetic beginnings such as non-ferrous metal industry or non-renewable energy ingestion. These substances can do major harm to human wellness or to ecosystem stableness even at low concentrations in dirts. To get the better of this issue, many states have taken legion enterprises particularly the developed state. For illustration, in 2001 the European Union council signed the 1979 Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution on Heavy Metals ( Europa, 2007 ) . Therefore there are many methods to measure and measure the presence of these substances. One of them is biological used. The application of biological signifiers as the indexs is the best ways to measure the environmental status. Harmonizing to ( Szczepaniak and Biziuk, 2003 ; Bargagli, 1998 ) , in order to observe, measure and minimise the effects, there has been an accent in the usage of natural bioindicators to supervise atmospheric quality in both urban and rural environments. Examples of bioindicators are lichens, fish, and mosses. One of the bioindicators that can be used is lichens. Lichens are widely known as an first-class index to measure our environment. Lichens drama importance functions to forest communities. Lichens represent a rare beginning of readily digestible nutrient at all times of twelvemonth and in diverse environments due to their ability to last in utmost clime status. More by and large, lichens act as innovator species in waste or disturbed environments ; their growing on stone surfaces is one of the primary phases of dirt formation in such environments ( Brakenhielm, 1998 ; Cooper, 1953 in Dawson, 2008 ) . Lichens are little, non-vascular workss dwelling of a fungus and an alga turning together in one tissue. Normally lichens are found on the bark of trees, or the caribou lichens turning on the land, but many other species grow on stones, fencings, roofs, gravestones, and other objects. The feature of lichen that sensitive to the alterations of the surrounding makes them as an first-class bioindicators and biomonitors for air pollution, particularly sulfur dioxide pollution, since they derive their H2O and indispensable foods chiefly from the ambiance instead than from the dirt. A batch of surveies towards lichens had been done related to pollution particularly air pollution in most Europen states and North America Asia. During the period 1973-1988, about 1500 documents were published on the effects of air pollution on lichens Richardson ( 1988 ) cited in Ahmadjian ( 1993 ) , and many general reappraisals of lichens and air pollution have been compiled ( Ahmadjian, 1993 ) . The statute law about air quality that they made has been base on ballss through out the states particularly in developing states where air pollution is bad. In Malaysia, several surveies has been conducted ( Mokhtar et al. , 2006 ) to find the heavy metals pollution degree utilizing lichen at difference topographic points. From the research, they found out that the sensitiveness of lichens towards heavy metals vary from each species. Most of species of lichen have a broad geographical distribution, which allows for a survey of pollution covering broad countries and its high capacity to r oll up metals ( Burton, 1986 ) . Hutchinson et al. , ( 1996 ) stated that lichens do non hold seasonal fluctuations and therefore accretion of pollutants can happen all year-round. Lichens and mosses normally have considerable length of service, which led to their usage as long-run planimeters of atmospheric deposition ( Sloof, 1993 ) . The benefits of utilizing lichens as quantitative biological proctors of air metal deposition comparison to conventional air trying techniques rise from that lichens are present in most tellurian home grounds, are perennial, cheap and easy reproduced ( Baffi et al. , 2002 ) .1.1 Problem statementNowadays the degree of heavy metals in the environment increasing twenty-four hours by twenty-four hours as the universe becomes much more developed. This is because the uncontrolled released of heavy metals leads to the pollution due to the inordinate anthropogenetic activities. The uninterrupted burden of heavy metals into inland and coastal H2O make the st ate of affairs worsens. Anthropogenetic activities such as excavation, smelting and agribusiness have locally increased the degrees of heavy metals such as Cd ( Cd ) , Cu ( Cu ) , Cr ( Cr ) , lead ( Pb ) , arsenic ( As ) and nickel ( Ni ) in dirt up to unsafe degrees for workss, animate beings and human existences. Although with the wood around us, the position of heavy metals level rather important as the consequence of human day-to-day activities, heavy population country near the wood and besides an increasing of the transit. These activities give inauspicious consequence to the life being as they enter into the environment. Other than that the ordinances provided by Malayan authorities which is the Environmental Quality Act 1974 by Department of Environment, still non to the full been forced due to the engagement other parties such as local authorization to take action when the degree of pollutants exceed the standard given particularly in coastal country. This is due to the dif ferent section have different duties. Nevertheless these parties can be work together to make a better life. Meanwhile due to the deficiency of surveies towards the lichens in our state, the informations obtained can assist the local authorization in determination devising procedure therefore maintained the quality. Besides that, it would assist to do an appraisal about the environmental status and possibly to better environmental quality position.1.2 ObjectiveThis survey was carried out in order to accomplish as the followerss:To quantify the heavy metals present in lichens.To measure the degree of heavy metals in lichens.To set up the correlativity of heavy metals pollutants in lichens with the environing environment.1.3 Significant of surveyBy cognizing that different species has different sensitiveness towards heavy metals, it allow breaking understanding about the sensitiveness of lichens towards heavy metals at environing environment. The presence or absences of species in cou ntries can give better understanding about the sensitiveness of lichens towards the pollutants. The information obtained besides can be used to measure the toxicology effects non merely to the lichens but besides on homo. Heavy metals can really toxic if the degree of the pollutants higher than the limited given. The informations besides can make the distribution forms of lichens at that topographic point. The pollution degree and position topographic point besides can be determined. This survey provides a mention record for carry oning farther biomonitoring surveies.1.4 Thesis organisationThe finding of heavy metals in lichens as bioindicators is a thesis based on old research in different trying location. Overall, this thesis consists of five chapters which are to help in understanding and easiness to form through authorship procedure. The chapters in this thesis have been forming as follows: Chapter 2 by and large discuss about the used on lichens as bioindicators. In this chapter, it besides has detailed account on the morphology of lichens that play of import function in accumulate heavy metals. It besides include the history on the scientific research on lichens, the important function on absorb the heavy metals and the effects of air pollution and metal pollution towards lichens. Chapter 3 is more concentrating on research methodological analysis. In this portion, it is divided into three parts which are the description on country of survey, trying aggregation and in conclusion laboratory analysis which is the process to find heavy metals utilizing Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometer ( ICP-MS ) . Chapter 4 is concentrating on the consequences obtained and treatment. In this chapter, it discuss about the informations obtained after analyze by ICP-MS. It besides include the statistical tools to analyse the preciseness of the informations obtain in order to hold a good information. It besides states the consequences and the informations reading between the samples. Chapter 5 is the last chapter which is the decision. In this portion, it concludes for the whole chapter in the thesis. It related on the aim of the survey including the recommendation to better the research on lichens.Chapter 2LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 BioindicatorsBioindicators, besides known as biomarkers, are tools that used in ecology, physiology, environmental microbiology and other subjects, to observe strain and other environmental conditions environing beings. USEPA stated that biological index species are alone environmental indexs as they offer a signal of the biological status in a watershed as they reveal the pollution position from clip to clip. The presence of this species can give an early warning of pollution or debasement in an ecosystem every bit good as aid prolong critical resources. Bioindicators differ from biomonitoring. Bioindicators are really groups or types of biological resources that can be used for designation and qualitative finding of homo generated enviro nmental factors Tonneijk and Posthumus ( 1987 ) cited in Conti and Cecchetti ( 2001 ) while biomonitors are being chiefly used for the quatitative finding of and can be classified as being sensitive or accumulative ( Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ) . Bioindicators are divided into two types. First, accretion indexs which are shop pollutants without any apparent alterations in their metamorphosis. Another one is response indexs which is react with cell alterations or seeable symptoms of harm when taking up even little sums of risky substances. The application of bioindicators in measuring air pollution is much cheaper compared with other methods as Fuga et al. , ( 2008 ) noted that beside low cost, they besides easy for sampling, and the possibility of supervising broad countries. The application of workss as bioindicators has been conducted for many old ages to observe environmental alterations ( Mokhtar et al. , 2006 ) . Harmonizing to Chandra and Sinha ( 2000 ) workss are extremely effectual and sensitive tools for finding and foretelling environmental emphasiss. Mosss, lichens and Fungis are the illustrations type of workss that normally used to bespeak the environmental alterations. However a lichen species was more resilient than a moss species in two exposure experiments look intoing hint metal consumption affecting grafts into urban environments ( Tretiach et al. , 2007 ) .2.2 LichensLichens consists of a fungus, known as the mycobiont, and a photosynthetic being, a green alga or blue-green algae species, the photobiont. Both of them are symbiosis as they rely each other where the algae and fungi give benefits each other ( Hawksworth and Rose, 1976 ) . The symbiotic action between the mycobiont ( -s ) and the photobiont ( -s ) , signifier thallus which the organic structure of lichens through a procedure of symbiogenesis ( Margulis and Barreno, 2003 ) are stable â€Å"micro-ecosystems† as a consequence mutualism procedure make these non-linear belongingss to be peculiarly effectual ‘early warning indexs ‘ of alterations dues to the impact of worlds on ecosystems ( Barreno, 2003 ) . Poikolainen ( 2004 ) stated that the fungous constituent normally an Ascomycetes fungus, and a green alga ( Chlorophyceae ) and/or bluish green alga ( Cyanobacteriae ) is the algal constituent. About 19 % of all Fungis are lichenized ( Lutzoni et al. , 2001 ; Hawksworth et al. , 1995 ) . More than 98 % of lichenized fungous species belong to phylum Ascomycota, others are from orders of phylum Basidiomycota and some to Mitosporic Fungi ( Hawksworth et al. , 1995 ; Tehler, 1996 ) . Most of the photobiont spouse is form by green alga ( Chlorophyta ; Lewis and McCourt, 2004 ) , merely approximately 10 % with blue-green algae, and 3 % with both green alga and blue-green algae ( Hawksworth et al. , 1995 ; Honegger, 1996 ) . The fungous constituent is responsible for taking up H2O and minerals, and the algal constituent, which grows in the center of the fungous mycelia, for photosynthesis in order to feed both spouses as it has chlorophyll that is able to devour sunshine, produce indispensable foods. Most lichen species obtain their foods from moisture and dry deposition ( Garty, 1993 ) . Some mycobionts can besides alter their photosynthesizing spouse from green alga to cyanobacterium and frailty versa and this leads to alterations in thallus morphology ( Oksanen, 2006 ) . This behaviour was suggested to be due to an environmental version and related to ecological compatibility of the photobiont ( Honegger, 1996 ; Stenroos et Al, 2003 ) . The categorization of lichens depends on thallus construction. There are three growing signifiers of lichens which are Crustose ( crusty ) , foliaceous ( leafy ) and fructicose ( shrubby ) ( Swinscow and Krog, 1988 ) . Growth form irregular the grade of physical contact and orientation of the lichen with its substrate every bit good as the sum of uninterrupted surface country exposed to airborne deposition therefore it should hold a direct impact on both the interception and consumption of airborne and substrate available elements by lichens ( Samuel et al, 2002 ) . Basically lichens can be found in tellurian home grounds, although a few can last invariably below the surface of H2O, such as Peltigera hydrothyria. They can populate on bark ( epiphytic ) , stones ( epilithic ) , or dirt ( terricolous ) and can even turn within the upper part of stones ( endolithic ) , peculiarly in exposed limestones and sandstones. In the Torrid Zones they can besides colonise foliages ( foliicolous ) ( Nash, 2008 ) . Lichens frequently grow in home grounds with utmost visible radiation, waterlessness, or temperature, which are less favourable or unsuitable for higher workss ( Vrablikova et al. , 2006 ) . Although lichens are attached to the bark or perforate a short distance, they are non parasite which is non come ining the inner bark where nutrient is transported, and therefore do non devour the tree of nutriment. Lichens depend on mineral foods from moisture and dry deposition on the works surface in the signifier of soluble salts and atoms, for their growing and metamorphosis ( Loppi and Pirintsos, 2003 ) . Lichens can widen the utmost status, slow-growing, beings that maintain a reasonably unvarying morphology in clip and are extremely dependent on the environing for foods ( Loppi and Pirintsos, 2003 ) . Several research workers such as Chiarenzelli et Al. ( 1997 ) have studied the accretion of heavy metals in Arctic tundra ecosystem at the Otter Lake, Northwest Territories, Canada.2.2 Lichens as bioindicatorsSince lichens are the most widely used biomonitors in tellurian environments ( Nimis et al. , 2002 ) , therefore they can observe and supervise a tonss of pollutants such as SO2, HF, metals, high N deposition, organic pollutants and radionuclides. Most surveies utilizing lichens as index species of air pollution peculiarly acerb rain, fertilisers, sulfur and N oxides, and metals, has been documented in 1000s of scientific documents ( Henderson, 2000 ) . Hawksworth and Rose ( 1976 ) reported that in the early 1860 ‘s lichens were recognized as possible indexs of air pollution in Britain and Europe. Since so, lichens have played outstanding functions in air pollution surveies throughout the universe because of their sensitiveness to different gaseous pollutants, peculiarly sulfur dioxide. More than a century ago William Nylander ( 1866 ) , a European scientist, found that lichens in the countryside around Paris were non found inside the metropolis. He investigated the state of affairs and found out that the lichens had been quickly decreasing, killed by pollutants. Since of those findings, an extended research have been conducted in many countries ( Barkman, 1958 ; De Wit, 1976 ; Hawksworth, 1971 ) cited in Wolterbeek et al. , ( 2003 ) . Other than that, several researches have studied the relationship between lichens and hint elements in different geographic country ( Loppi and Bonini, 2000 ; Garty, 2001 ; Carreras and Pignata, 2002 ; Yenisoy-Karakas and Tuncel, 2004 ; Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ; Bergamaschi et al. , 2004 ) . Hundreds of surveies have been published on the effects of sulfur dioxide, N compounds, ozone, heavy metals and other atmospheric pollutants on the morphology and physiology of lichens since the 1950 ‘s ( Richardson, 1992 ; Garty, 2000 ) . These surveies have chiefly been experimental. Lichens have besides been employed among other things as accretion indexs of heavy metals ( Freitas, 1994 ) every bit good as sulfur and N compounds ( Sochting, 1995 ) derived from industrial activities and power production in a infinite figure of surveies carried out in the milieus of emanation beginnings. Therefore research related to the pollution based on lichen as an indexs being used widely. This is because there were certain features on lichens that make them an first-class bioindicators for finding the presence of the primary pollutants such as sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) , nitrogen dioxide ( NO2 ) , fluoride, acerb precipitation, ozone and metals ( Hutchinson et al. , 1996 ) . Several regional and even national studies have been carried out on the relationship between the happening of epiphytic lichen and atmospheric pollutants ( Poikolainen et al. , 2000 ) . Other than that, Soderstrom ( 1988 ) , Lesica et al. , ( 1991 ) , Esseen et al. , ( 1997 ) cited in Humphrey et al. , ( 2002 ) supported that epiphytic nonvascular plants and lichens are of import constituents of biological diverseness in natural boreal and temperate woods. Most of species of lichen have a broad geographical distribution, which allows for a survey of pollution covering broad countries and its high capacity to roll up metals Burton ( 1986 ) cited in Mokhtar et al. , ( 2006 ) . Hutchinson et al. , ( 1996 ) stated that lichens do non hold seasonal fluctuations and therefore accretion of pollutants can happen all old ages. They cover 8 % of the land surface, including some of the most utmost environments on Earth Larson ( 1987 ) cited in Backor and Loppi ( 2009 ) . Lichens and mosses normally have considerable length of service, which led to their usage as long-run planimeters of atmospheric deposition ( Sloof, 1993 ) . Lichens are really sensitive to break in naturality ensuing from air pollutants, chiefly sulfur dioxide and heavy metals ( Nimis et al. , 2002 ) . Their alone characteristic which is do non hold outer impermeable bed of tissue to forestall gases and atoms that affect their metamorphosis. This characteristic besides indicate that little atoms in the ambiance can be absorbed do them most of import bioindicator ( Bennet, 2006 ) . Besides that, because of the failing of its cuticles enables moist air to be absorbed through its surface. Metallic elements which are absorbed along with the moist air are dissolved in it ( Mokhtar et al. , 2006 ) . Trace metals from air borne atoms can be absorbed by lichen and so roll up and saturated the metals. This is because their construction and anatomy ( Hutchinson et al, 1996 ) do them able to uptake the pollutants. The diminishing of some lichen diverseness due to the increasing in air pollution and environmental emphasis ( Svoboda, 2010 ) indicate that the environmental status in that part is polluted. Pollution signifiers such as forest atomization ( Fritz et al. , 2008 ; Hedenas and Ericson, 2008 ; Ranius et al. , 2008 ) give premium public-service corporation as indexs of naturalist.2.3 Biological public presentationLichens can be considered and analyzed in footings of their morphology, histology, ecology and physiology, in short or long-run periods of clip ( Ahmadjian and Hale, 1973 ) . Several researches Garty et al. , ( 1998 ) has been studied on the lichen ‘s biological public presentation such as measurings on growing rate, productiveness, generative capacity, malformation, stain, chlorophyll content, membrane unity, respiratory activity, ionic content, geographical happening, substrate-related distributional restrictions, or H2O dealingss. Habitat debasement and loss ( Groom et al. , 2006 ) , habitat atomization ( Bergamini et al. , 2005 ) , overuse ( Upreti et al. , 2005 ) , species invasions ( La Greca and Stutzman, 2006 ) , and clime alteration is the chief menaces to the biodiversity of lichens. For illustration, overbrowsing of the Cladonia heath by increasing caribou populations in Scandinavia and Alaska has long been recognised as an of import factor doing the terrible diminution of lichens, which might go a serious job in caribou farming ( Suominen and Olfosson, 2000 ) . Climate alteration is likely to hold dramatic effects on distribution and copiousness of lichen populations ( Ellis and Coppins, 2007 ; Ellis et al. , 2007 ) . Yet another menace which is specific to lichens and other poikilohydric cryptogams is air pollution, which has led to the terrible diminution of legion species throughout Central Europe ( Nimis et al. , 2002 ) . The construction and features of lichens play of import function as they served as the early warning to the pollution. Otnyukova et Al. ( 2007 ) identifies a relationship between deposition, unnatural morphology in Usnea and tissue chemical science, supplying an early indicant of forest diminution. However the biological grading, the reading of â€Å" symptom function † is frequently instead hard Seaward ( 1976 ) cited in Wolterbeek et al. , ( 2003 ) . Due to the addition in size may reflect an addition in generative capacity but may besides merely show an abnormalcy of form or signifier of the cardinal parts of the thallus. Another ground is the stain might be associated to the general deteriorate but besides reflect hurts from other beginnings such as insect, diseases or chemical sprays. Last but non least, alterations in the distribution of species may reflect alterations in air pollution ( Barkman, 1958 ; De Wit, 1976 ; Henderson-Sellers and Seaward, 1979 cited in Wolterbeek et al.,2003 ) , but may besides be associated to other environmental parametric quantities ( Henderson-Sellers and Seaward, 1979 ) , such as alterations in humidness or alterations in the handiness of preferent substrates ( De Wit, 1976 ; Manning and Feder, 1980 ) .2.4 Heavy metalsDetermining concentrations of heavy metals in the environment is an of import portion of understanding biochemical procedures and grade of ecosystem wellness ( Schilling and Lehman, 2002 ) . Harmonizing to USEPA in Private Drinking Water Wells, heavy metals can be define as metallic elements with high denseness, such as, quicksilver Cr Cd, arsenic, and lead. Even at low degrees these metals can damage living things. Once heavy metals get into the environment, whether in little or big measures, they can non be wholly e liminated. They can non to interrupt down or biodegrade and be given to construct up in workss, animate beings, and people doing wellness concerns. This statement supported by other research workers such as Lenntech ( 2004 ) cited in Duruibe et al. , ( 2007 ) which stated that any heavy metal is toxic or toxicant even at low concentration. However, their denseness is non the most concerns features to be considered but their chemical belongingss ( Duruibe et al. , 2007 ) as they can do important impact to the environment. ( Dembitsky, 2003 ) reported that these toxic substances contribute to a assortment of toxic effects on life beings by nutrient concatenation as they enter into environment.2.5 Beginning of metal pollutionHeavy metals occur in two ways ; of course or geological and anthropogenetic activities such as industrial wastewaters, fuel production, excavation, smelting procedures, military operations, use of agricultural chemicals, small-scale industries ( including battery production, metal merchandises, metal smelting and overseas telegram coating industries ) , brick kilns and coal burning ( Zhen-Guo et al. , 2002 ) . This statement supported by Dembitsky ( 2003 ) which stated that these tracts are beginnings of heavy metal taint. Other than that Zhang et Al. ( 2009 ) noted that in nature, heavy metals are widely distributed in such ways such as H2O, dirt, air and assorted signifiers of beings at low concentration. Harmonizing to fairfaxcounty ( 2005 ) nowadays roadways and cars are considered to be one of the largest beginnings of heavy metals. The most common heavy metals released from route travel are zinc, Cu, and lead, and at least 90 of the entire metals in route overflow. However lead concentrations, systematically have been diminishing since leaded gasolene was stopped. Other than that, undistinguished sums of other metals, such as Ni and Cd, are besides found in route overflow and fumes.2.6 Metallic elements toxicityPassage metals are required by workss ( Akbulut et al.,2008 ; Sofuoglu, et al.,2008 ) . Wolterbeek et Al. ( 2003 ) stated that the elements can be classified into macronutrients or micronutrients and as indispensable and non-essential. Some metals ; Co ( Co ) , Cu ( Cu ) , Cr ( Cr ) , and Ni ( Ni ) are really necessary for human in highly little sums ( Zevenhoven and Kilpinen, 2001 ) . However some elements for illustration quicksilver ( Hg ) , Cd ( Cd ) , lead ( Pb ) , Cr ( Cr ) and arsenic ( As ) , can do pollution and interrupt the environment when their accretions exceed certain degrees even at low concentration ( Kennish, 1992 ) . Harmonizing to Jadia and Fulekar ( 2009 ) classified that â€Å"essential† metals which have benefits and of course found are ( Ca, Co, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, Se, V and Zn ) but can be toxic when inordinate while â€Å"non essential† metals which are ( Al, As, Au, Cd, Cr, Hg, Pb, Pd, Pt, Sb, Te, Tl and U ) that can be extremely toxic and can do serious wellness harm when inordinate consumption. Information given by Bowen ( 1979 ) cited in Wolterbeek et Al. ( 2003 ) and Markert ( 1996 ) can be utilize for farther general and more elaborate informations on metal essentialness, happening in dirts and workss, toxicity and uptake. Plants have the ability to roll up indispensable metals in different concentration for growing and development ( Jadia and Fulekar, 2009 ) . However workss besides tend to roll up the non-essential metals which have no known biological map ( Djingova and Kuleff, 2000 ) . Wolterbeek et Al. ( 2003 ) found that because of the works ‘s me tabolically controlled care of needed degrees of indispensable elements, lichens may demo instead high base-line concentrations for particularly the indispensable elements under low atmospheric handiness conditions. Because of their features which is can non to be brake down, it can do direct toxicity by damaging cell construction ( due to oxidative emphasis caused by reactive O species ) and suppress a figure of cytoplasmatic enzymes when the accretion inside works cells above threshold or optimum degree ( Assche and Clijsters, 1990 ) . Furthermore, it can do indirect toxic effects by replacing indispensable foods at cation exchange sites in workss ( Taiz and Zeiger, 2002 ) . Baker ( 1981 ) cited in Jadia and Fulekar ( 2009 ) suggested, that some workss have evolved to digest the presence of big sums of metals in their environment by the undermentioned three ways ; exclution, inclution and bioaccumulation.2.7 Lichens and surplus of heavy metalsPermeability of the plasma membrane of lichens may change by metals, taking to leakage of ions like K and other solutes ( Grunsveld and Clijsters, 1994 ) . Biomonitors by lichens at specific country has failing as their responses could be changing from th ose observed in the research lab. This is due to the fact that the lichens are exposed non merely to a individual pollutant but to other mixtures of pollutants which are besides affected by different meteoric conditions ( Carreras et al. , 2005 ) . Although biomonitoring plan on atmospheric heavy metals and advancement in this field has been already reviewed throughout the universe ( Garty, 2001 ; Bargagli and Mikhailova, 2002 ) but in the last few old ages at that place has been researched focused on the physiological and biochemical effects of heavy metal accretion in lichens ( Backor and Loppi, 2009 ) . There are many surveies has been documented sing the effectivity of lichens in stoping atoms non merely from the ambiance but besides from substrate ( Loppi et al. , 1999 ; Pirintsos et al. , 2006 ) . These atoms may be precipitated onto the lichen surface or trapped in the intercellular infinites of the myelin ( Garty et al. , 1979 cited in Backor and Loppi, 2009 ) and remain unchanged for a long period. Lichen can be harm caused by the presence of other gaseous or particulate pollutants in the environment which can disrupt the physiological procedures involved in the accretion of heavy metals ( Carreras et al. , 2005 ) . However Backor and Loppi ( 2009 ) found that because of the atoms deposited and remain unchanged, lichens can retain and accretion of heavy metals in measures that exceed their physiological demands. Several surveies have been conducted on the accretion of heavy metals in many different species ( Sawidis et al. , 1995 ; Monaci et al. , 1997 ; Scerbo et al. , 1999 ; Loppi et al. , 2002 ) . Some common species such as genera Acarospora, Aspicilia, Lecanora, Lecidea, Porpidia, Rhizocarpon or Tremolecia ( Purvis and Halls, 1996 ; Backor and Fahselt, 2004 ) associated with heavy metal-rich substrates can digest metals and occur in both contaminated and uncontaminated countries. Other species, nevertheless, are restricted and have a deficiency connexion in distribution reflecting the handiness of suited sites ( Backor and Loppi, 2009 ) .2.7 Accretion of heavy metalsLichens tend to roll up metals from airborne atoms or from dissolved and suspended stuff ( Wolterbeek et al.,2003 ) . In general, five mechanisms have been put frontward with respect to the soaking up of metals in lichens ; ion exchange, electrolyte sorption, intracellular soaking up, entrapment of atoms that contain metals, extracellular and hydrolysis as indicated by uptake surveies with integral lichens ( Richardson, 1995 ) . Accretion of heavy metals in lichens is good documented ( Bargagli and Mikhailova, 2002 ) . Lichen tissue analysis likely arose from physiological probes into the consequence of heavy metals on lichen metamorphosis. Experimental work over the period from 1970-1985 by a group of lichen physiological ecologists, chiefly based at Laurentian University in Sudbury, determined the precise relationship between elemental consumption, storage and lichen metamorphosis ( Richardson and Nieboer, 1983 ; Richardson and Puckett, 1973 ) . The function of lichens as collector the heavy metals of assorted hint elements in atmospheric deposition, and tissue analyses have efficaciously characterized their spacial and temporal deposition forms has been studied by several research workers such as ( Garty, 2001 ; Walker et al. , 2003 ) . Harmonizing to Baker ( 1983 ) cited in Contti and Cecchetti ( 2001 ) there are many factors that influence the accretion of metals of workss such as the handiness of elements, the features of workss such as type of reproduction. Therefore, the grade of tolerance to heavy metals is characteristic of each lichen species ( Carreras and Pignata, 2007 ) . Neiboer et Al. ( 1976 ) indicated a big scope in the elemental consumption of lichens that varied harmonizing to elemental features of the substrate and environmental factors, notably a tenfold addition in metals in relation to distance from smelters. Metallic elements and sulfur dioxide behave otherwise and are expected to hold differing radioactive dust forms ; nevertheless Rossbach et Al. ( 1999 ) demonstrated a additive correlativity between the element concentration in lichen stuff and the reciprocal of the distance from the emanation beginnings. However, an equal consideration of topography, substrate and meteoric conditions must b e considered to explicate fluctuation. Different species have different ability to absorb considerable sums of heavy metals ( Mokhtar et al. , 2006 ) . For illustration Pawlik-Skowronska et Al. ( 2006 ) found that apothecia of Lecanora polytropa accumulated Cu up to 1.3 % ( d.m. ) , about 50 % of which was in an exchangeable signifier. Other than that a few surveies have shown that foliaceous species by and large had higher component tonss than shrubby species when collected from the same site ( Glenn et al. , 1995 ; Gough et al. , 1988 ; Lawrey and Hale, 1981 cited in Clair et al. , 2002 ) . Assorted analytical techniques have been attempted by many research workers to increase cognition on the bonding procedure which is interaction between lichen and metal. One of them is electron paramagnetic resonance. Although Conti and Cecchetti ( 2001 ) reported that there was missing cognition in understanding the full procedure that responsible in the accretion, but there were new attack late been introduced which is by utilizing microcalorimetric technique with the purpose of obtaining enthalpic measuring informations ( Antonelli et al. , 1998 ) . As a consequence the tendency established a good correlativity between the metal bond and heat content values in metal consumption. For illustration tendency for Evernia Prunastri Pb & gt ; & gt ; Zn & gt ; Cd? Cu? Cr ( Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ) . The algal spouse has been reported to respond more sensitively e.g. , to acidic deposition and heavy metals, and to demo changing accretion of metals depending on the sourness of precipitation ( Tarhanen et al. , 1999 ) . Sporadic dehydration of lichens may besides hold an consequence on the accretion and soaking up of elements ( Puckett, 1988 ) . After a dry period, rainfall may ensue in appreciable rinsing off of atoms and the exchange of cations bound on negatively charged exchange sites on the cell walls and plasma membranes of the cells ( Bargagli, 1998 ) . The rapid, exchangeable procedure of metal adhering to cell walls in metal consumption by lichens has been extensively studied in the research lab ( Brown, 1976 ; Goyal and Seaward, 1982 ; Nieboer and Richardson, 1981 ; Nieboer et al. , 1978 cited in Wolterbeek et al. , 2003 ) . Several surveies have been conducted to mensurate the deposition of atmospheric in lichen. France and Coquery ( 1996 ) , for illustration measured deposition of atmospheric lead and compared them to lichen thalline contents from the high Arctic utilizing flameless atomic surface assimilation spectrophotometry. They found that the concentration of 2 ug g-1 dry weights to be the lowest degree found in lichen and established a latitudinal gradient in lead, with a clear form in diminishing Pb concentrations in lichens with increasing latitude throughout Canada. Simple to complex methods for finding the concentration of ions in lichen tissue have been developed for decennaries and it is widely accepted that tissue concentrations in most lichen species shows a precise relationship with deposition of particulate and ambient air concentrations of gaseous pollutants ( Seaward, 1992 ) . Entrapment of atoms contains metals which known as airborne pollutants accumulate in lichens by both moistures and dry deposition ( Nash, 1996 ) . Wet deposition involves any sort of precipitation event that washes airborne aerosols and particles out of the air, while dry deposition involves the settling out of airborne gases or atoms due to the increasing influence of gravitation with diminishing air current velocity ( Knops et al. , 1991 ) . Another beginning of elements such as dirt atoms deposited by windblown on lichen thalli may be accumulated by some lichens. Smaller deposited atoms may go trapped in the lichen thalli of species with big intercellular infin ites ( Collins and Farrar, 1978 cited in Clair et al. , 2002. However, when the concentration of metals is high plenty to go toxic, they themselves cause harm to the lichen thalli. As a consequence, several physiological mechanisms of response to air pollutants in lichens are altered, and therefore alter their original sensitiveness or tolerance to gaseous compounds like SO2, NOx, and O3 ( Carreras and Pignata, 2007 ) . These compounds affect the status of lichens and therefore cut down the capacity of lichens to roll up and absorb elements from the ambiance. Heavy metals have besides been found to impact e.g. , the permeableness of the cell membranes of lichens ( Tarhanen et al. , 1996 ) .2.8 Factors considerationHeavy metal content in lichen thallus tends to jump over clip in stages of accretion and subsequent release. Szczepaniak and Biziuk ( 2003 ) listed the factors that influence the metal soaking up in lichens which are acerb precipitation, geographical fluctuations such as height, temporal alterations for illustration seasonal fluctuati ons, dirt dust, local pollution beginnings, long-range conveyance. Climatic factors likely play of import function in the bioaccumulation of heavy metals, even if this yet ill-defined. Aptroot and new wave Herk ( 2007 ) provide increasing grounds that clime alteration is an of import factor, partially based on grounds from the algal spouse, much neglected in about all surveies, even though it is normally most sensitive to pollutants. The way in which the pollutants are transported by wind way is most surely cardinal in finding their chief radioactive dust point ( Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ) . Accretion of heavy metals in lichens is a dynamic procedure. Probe on the effects of extra metals showed that lichens soaked into metal solutions accumulated metals rapidly within a few hours. Observation on some metals such as Cu showed maximal accretion after 3- 6 H ( Monnet et al. , 2006 ) . In organ transplant surveies indicated that most lichens respond to alterations in atmospheric heavy metals within a few months. It took 2-5 old ages to measure the elements in lichen thalli ( Walther et al. , 1990 ) . Although it expected that the heavy metal content of lichens would increase as the clip addition, but the state of affairs is truly much more complicated. Surveies from Backor and Loppi ( 2009 ) showed that contents of several elements in transplanted lichens go up and down during the survey period. This is because the contents of these elements are, at least partially, controlled by physiological procedures and turnover mechanisms ( Bergamaschi et al. , 2007 ) . Furthermore, metals can be removed by rainwater which remove polluting atoms on the thallus surface ( Brown and Brown, 1991 ) ensuing in lower content during periods of rain and higher content in the dry season. Other than that, the water-leachable fraction ( deposited plus intercellular ) is by and large assumed to stand for chiefly metals originated from dry deposition, and the elements present in leachates show distinguishable temporal forms with concentrations being normally higher in summer than in winter ( Boonpragob and Nash, 1990 ) . However, because lichens are more active metabolically when moisture, winter months are suited to growing and mineral consumption ( Nash and Gries, 1995 ) . Not merely the water-leachable fraction contributes the uneven of the concentration, rainfall besides amply contributes to the entire component content of lichens ( Knops et al. , 1991 ) . Both of the procedure could bring forth temporal differences in metal contents in malice of changeless pollution tonss, nevertheless the concentrations in lichen thalli chiefly varies harmonizing to sums of incident pollutants. These may bring forth a high sum of biological emphasis, therefore alter element consump tion ( Bergamaschi et al. , 2007 ) . Besides that, the clip exposure of lichens transplanted into contaminated countries besides takes a count in the accretion of elements procedure. This is because it influences the verve of thalli and accordingly the active procedures of element consumption. Garty ( 2001 ) noted that in order to find the minimum exposure required to bring forth important alteration, the critical period of exposure remains unknown particularly in the absence of time-studies. Short exposure times of 1-3 months are by and large sufficient to impact transplanted lichens. When the exposure is longer, they become saturated with the elements, lose biomass, surface constructions change and alter physiological public presentation ( Bargagli and Mikhailova, 2002 ) . Other factors are the constructions of lichen itself influence the metal consumption. Their physical features such a surface construction, adhesion and water-holding capacity of thalli besides affect metal accretion in lichens ( Brown and Beckett, 1985 ) . Richardson ( 1995 ) observed that pores and holes on the cerebral mantle, which could pin down atoms or let them to come in inside the thallus, in some species may be sealed by polymers, likely including lichenins and isolichenins. In contaminated countries, the concentration of hint component in the peripheral ( younger ) of foliaceous lichens may be lower than cardinal ( older ) portion of the thallus because of the greater exposure times experienced ( Bargagli et al. , 1987 cited in Backor and Loppi, 2009 ) . This comparing has been studied by ( Loppi et al. , 1997 ) , where they used Flavoparmelia caperata thalli from an uncontaminated country of cardinal Italy. They found out that there was extremely variable and contents of s everal elements ( As, Cr, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Sb ) were similar. Backor and Loppi ( 2009 ) suggested that the concentration in cardinal thallus parts were higher because the elements are trapped in the myelin. The indispensable elements for metamorphosis which is Co, Cu, Mo, and Zn were concentrated in the peripheral parts which are the metabolic activities are most active. This suggests that metals can travel from one portion of the thallus to another. However a few surveies have shown that foliaceous species by and large had higher component tonss than shrubby species when collected from the same site ( Glenn et al. , 1995 ) Altitude seems play of import function for some elements. Study has been done on hypogymnia physodesof on lead ( Pb ) and Cd ( Cd ) concentration ( Kral et al. , 1989 cited in Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ) . He found that concentration of Pb and Cd addition as the height increase up to 900-1100 m. at higher height, Cd concentration tend to diminish. Therefore, this species of lichen is suited to measure the metals uptake in position of its high-tolerance capacities ( Jeran et al. , 1996 ) . The ground for this is likely because of the different sum of precipitation, and deposition of more soluble elements ( Kral et al. , 1989 cited in Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ) . Another factor is related to the species of lichen. Wolterbeek et Al. ( 2003 ) noted that different species contain changing sums of metals even at the same palce. It is obvious that the sum of metal contained by lichen is species-dependent. Upreti and Pandey ( 1994 ) described this statement by made comparing between Umbilicaria decussata and U. aprina in Antarctica. From the consequence, they found out that the lichen Umbilicaria decussata collected contained more Pb and Fe than U. aprina in the same site. This difference was attributed to the thin thallus of U. decussata which makes for a high ratio of surface country to dry weight as compared with U. aprina. Temporal alterations such as season fluctuation besides contribute to the rate of metal consumption. Basically high concentration of heavy metals found in thallus after summer twenty-four hours. This is due to the increased hydration that consequences from autumn rainfall ( Nieboer et al. , 1978 cited in Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ) . Loppi et Al. ( 1997 ) studied the hint component content in Mediterranean clime. As the accretion non being washout, they found out that it is strongly influenced by the dirt dust taint. On a smaller graduated table, lichens turning on stray trees contain higher sums of heavy metal-rich atoms than those in heavy tree bases. Even in single trees, heavy metal accretion depends on the extent of stemflow on a peculiar side and is normally higher close land degree ( Bargagli and Mikhailova, 2002 ) . In general, much polluted countries have merely really tolerant species ; clean air-areas have a much higher natural diverseness of lichens including several that are highly sensitive to little measures of sulfur dioxide.Chapter 3Methodology2.1 ApparatusThe setup that being used for carry oning the analysis are beaker ( 250 milliliter ) , analytical balance, 0.45  µm glass fibre filter paper, volumetric flask ( 50 milliliter ) , pipette ( 10ml ) , forceps, Teflon vas, micro-cook digestion system ETHOS 1 Milestone, and extractor tubing ( 15 milliliter ) .2.2 ChemicalsThe chemicals used for this analysis show in table 2.2 Table 2.1 list of chemicals usedChemicalsDeionize H2OAzotic acid ( HNO3 ) ( 65 % )Hydrogen Peroxide ( 35 % )Standard solution Standard 3 concentration 10 µg/ml2.3 Quality Control ( QC ) and Quality Assurance ( QA )Quality confidence and quality control play of import functions for carry oning analysis of research. Both of them must be following in order to find, calculate and guarantee the systematic and random error in planning, trying, analysis and information reported. Quality control is certain be aftering for the whole research lab operation such as aggregation method and manages informations and samples through criterion processs which help in obtaining a good information, dependable and have high assurance degree. On the other manus, quality control is a set of processs in methodological analysis such as the sampling method and analysis for guaranting that the procedure is under control, which is follow the right standard process guideline. Preciseness and rightness are of i mport in QC. In this survey, day-to-day public presentation study was used to measure the public presentation of ICP-MS and its surrounding. The study contains the value of strength, the preciseness, sensitiveness, interventions and the background of environing. These standards are of import to cognize the laboratory status and instrument used which can impact the public presentation. From the study obtained, these standards are under standard given. This indicates that the status of its surrounding is good. Other than that, the standardization curve determines the concentration of the samples whether within the criterion or non. A one-dimensionality cheque was made after the standardization by analyzing the rectification coefficient of the curve. The best for coefficient curve is 1. Table Besides that, the rinse out survey is performed to do certain that carry over does non impact readings after the debut of a solution of higher concentration. This can be done in the proper rinse times.2.4 Description of survey countryBukit Larut once known as Maxwell Hill is a upland located 10 kilometer from Taiping, Perak, Malaysia. It was founded in 1888 and is Malaysia ‘s oldest hill resort. Its tallness about 1250 m above sea degree and the temperature is about the same as Fraser ‘s Hill, between 19-25 °C. Bukit Larut was the wettest portion of the state as it receives the highest rainfall in the state. It was foremost founded by William Edward Maxwell who was appointed as Assistant Resident of Perak in 1875 to function as a cool retreat for colonial functionaries from the humidness of the Lowlandss. Not every bit developed as the popular upland such as Cameroon Highland and Genting Highland, Bukit Larut retain their good environmental quality as nature has been left on its ain to boom bounteously. It is widely known by Green Peace Lover, Botanical Scientists, and Flora and Fauna Specialist World Wide. Taiping was a beautiful basin, surrounded by exuberant tropical jungle and exalted hills. Gazetted as a lasting wood modesty in 1910, Bukit Larut ‘s untasted mountain woods are filled with bird life, with squirrels and Gibbons roam around freely. There were 100s and 1000s of rare species of vegetations and zoologies which barely to happen anywhere else. This topographic point is popular particularly with nature lovers, bird spectators, twenty-four hours trippers looking for a placid pickup.2.5 Sample readyingTwenty samples from different species of lichens were collected utilizing fictile knife to avoid any metals taint. The samples so transferred and sealed in airtight in nothing lock bags. Lichens should non be air-dried in countries subject to taint such as roads and dust degrees are high. The samples need to be rinsed before being dried at room temperature for 24 hours. Then the samples are dried in the oven for 12 hours at temperature 50 °C and let to be cooled in room temperature. After that, the sample crushed into little pieces and maintain in polyethylene bottle and labeled.2.6 Microwave assisted acid digestionThe sample must be prepared in solution signifier before analysis.The samples were digested utilizing ETHOS 1 Milestone microwave system. This method is applicable to the microwave assisted acerb digestion on biological. The specification of the microwave is show on table 2.2 Table 2.2 Specification of ETHOS 1 Milestone microwave systemItemSpecificationHNO365 % – 70 %Maximal temperature200  °CTemperature control ATC detector length180  µmMaximal force per unit area30 saloon ( 435 pounds per square inch )Vessel stuffTFM TeflonVessel volume75 milliliterMaximal reagent volume35 milliliterCover stuffTFM TeflonVessel weight? 250 gThis method is applicable for the undermentioned elements in table 2.3 Table 2.3 The elements applicable utilizing the microwave assisted systemElementssAluminumCopperSilverAntimonyIronSodiumArsenicLeadStrontiumBoronMagnesiumThalliumBariumMangeneseVanadiumCadmiumMercuryCalciumMolybdenumChromiumNickelCobaltPotassiumCopperSelenium2.6.1 Interventions2.6.1 Gaseous digestion reaction merchandises, really reactive, or volatile stuffs that may make high force per unit areas when heated and may do discharge of the vass with possible loss of sample and analytes. The complete decomposition of either carbonates, or C based samples, may do adequate force per unit area to vent the vas if the sample size is greater than 0.25 g. 2.6.2 The utilizations of several digestion reagents that are necessary to either wholly decompose the matrix or to stabilise specific elements may restrict the usage of specific analytical instrumentality methods. Hydrochloric acid is known to interfere with some instrumental analysis methods such as fire atomic soaking up ( FLAA ) and inductively coupled plasma atomic emanation spectroscopy ( ICP-AES ) . The presence of hydrochloric acid may be debatable for graphite furnace atomic soaking up ( GFAA ) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy ( ICP-MS ) . Hydrofluoric acid, which is capable of fade outing silicates, may necessitate the remotion of extra hydrofluoric acid or the usage of specialised non-glass constituents during instrumental analysis. Method 3052 enables the analyst to choose other decomposition reagents that may besides do jobs with instrumental analyses asking matrix matching of criterions to account for viscousness and chemical differences.2.6.2 Reagent ch oiceMethod 3052 allows the analyst to choose specific reagents for specific matrices and analytes of involvement. Typically 9.0 milliliter of azotic acid are placed in the reaction vas with the sample, and a combination of other reagents such as hydrochloric, hydrofluoric, or H peroxide may be added based on matrix and peculiar analytes. Hydrofluoric and hydrochloric acids are both used as complexation reagents particularly in the presence of silicates and cherished metals severally. The usage of H peroxide enhances the oxidization belongingss of azotic acid particularly in the digestion of organics. Nevertheless peroxide may be used in all digestions, nevertheless be cognizant of the increased responsiveness with organic stuffs. The following table suggests reagents and their ratios utilizing method 3052. Table 2.4 reagents and their ratios utilizing method 3052Reagent and volume ( milliliter )MatrixHNO3HafniumHClH2O2Dirt9321Sediment9321Biological9012Botanic90.50.51Waste oil90.50.522.7 Sample digestion0.1g sample of lichen is weighed out in the reaction vas. 10 milliliter of azotic acid are so added to each vas. Then 1.0 milliliters hydrogen peroxide is added for complete oxidization of organic affair. Both of the reagents were added in a fume goon to avoid the inspiration of the vapour gas that arises. As for the mention vas or the clean sample, it is the same manner as the readying for sample but non include the sample. The vas is allowed to respond for about one minute prior to sealing the vass to homogenise the sample. The vas decently topographic point in the microwave system harmonizing to the maker ‘s recommended specifications and connect appropriate temperature and force per unit area detectors to vass harmonizing to maker ‘s specifications. Both detectors allow m onitoring and controlling of both external and internal temperature of all vass in existent clip during the digestion. Vessels should so be placed in the rotor and placed in the microwave. After that, the vass heated with 120 °C for temperature at 850W for one hr. Following, the vas allowed to be cooled before uncap. Carefully, the sample solution so transferred into centrifuge tubing.2.8 Laboratory analysisAfter samples were digested in close vas, the solution so filtered utilizing 0.45 µm Glass Fiber Whatman filter paper. The solution so transferred into a 50ml volumetric flask and diluted with deionized H2O. Finally, the solution analyzed by utilizing Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry ( ICP-MS ) Perkin Elmer Series 200.2.9 Elemental analysis2.9.1 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry or ICP-MSInductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry or ICP-MS is an analytical technique used for elemental analysis with first-class sensitiveness. The ICP-MS instrument empl oys argon plasma ( ICP ) as the ionisation beginning and a mass spectrometer ( MS ) , normally with a quadrupole mass filter, to divide the ions produced. It can at the same time mensurate most elements in the periodic tabular array and find analyte concentrations down to the subnanogram per litre, or parts per trillion ( ppt ) , degree. It can execute qualitative, semiquantitative, and quantitative analysis, and compute isotopic ratios on H2O samples, and in waste infusions and digests. Figure 1 shows a conventional representation of an ICP beginning in an ICP-MS. In an ICP-MS instrument, liquid samples are introduced by a peristaltic pump to the atomizer where a sample aerosol is formed. A double-pass spray chamber ensures that a consistent aerosol is introduced to the plasma. Argon gas is introduced through a series of homocentric vitreous silica tubings, known as the ICP torch. The torch is located in the centre of a wireless frequence ( RF ) spiral. A Tesla spiral ionizes the Ar gas and free negatrons are accelerated by a 27 MHz wireless frequence field. Collisions between the accelerated negatrons and the Ar gas bring forth a high-temperature plasma. The sample aerosol is outright decomposed in the plasma to organize analyte atoms, some of which are ionized. The ions produced are extracted from the plasma into the mass spectrometer part, which is maintained at a high vacuity ( typically 10-6 millimeter of mercury ) utilizing differential pumping. The analyte ions are extracted through a brace of openings, about 1 millimeters in diameter, known as the trying cone and the skimmer cone. The analyte ions are so focused by a series of lenses into a quadrupole mass analyser which separates the ions based on their mass-to-charge ratio ( m/z ) . Finally, ions are detected utilizing an negatron multiplier, and informations at all multitudes are collected and stored through a computing machine interface. The mass spectrum generated is highly simple. Each elemental isotope appears at a different mass ; for illustration, 111Cd would look at 111 amu whereas 113Cd would look at 113 amu, with peak strengths straight relative to the initial concentration of each isotope. Despite the easiness of usage and first-class sensitiveness of this method, quantitative ICP-MS measurings are prone to matrix effects and other interventions that must be considered. For illustration, the presence of high chloride degrees in the sample will ensue in the formation of 40Ar35Cl+ , a molecular ion that interferes with the finding of 75As, the merely of course happening isotope of arsenic. Other factors, such as the concluding concentration of an acid used to fade out the sample, can impact the signal. The method of standard add-on can counterbalance for most of these effects, but this is a time-consuming attack and is non suited for big Numberss of samples. Another scheme that may assist is the usage of an internal criterion component with a mass and ionisation energy similar to that of the analyte. A combination of these attacks will be used in this experiment. ICP-MS can observe a really low concentration. Table 2.9.1 show the sensing bound for a broad assortment of elements. Table 2.5 sensing bound for elementsComponentsuggested wavelength ( nanometer )appraisal sensing bound ( ug/L )standardization concentration ( mg/L )upper bound concentration ( mg/L )aluminum308.224010100arsenous anhydride193.7 & lt ;Essay Writing Service Fully referenced, delivered on clip, Essay Writing Service.Assignment Writing Service Everything we do is focussed on composing the best possible assignment for your exact demandsTaging Service Our Marking Service will assist you pick out the countries of your work that need betterment.